These phenomena can be avoided, however, by taking them into account in immunisation schedules. Live SB203580 molecular weight viral vaccines may cause immunological interference with each other if administered at the wrong intervals – for example, live varicella virus vaccines and the measles, mumps and rubella vaccine should be given at the same time or 1 month apart to avoid interference. Vaccines developed within the last decade have benefited from an increased knowledge of the innate and adaptive immune responses, and are better characterised in terms of their immunological mechanism of action than many of their predecessors.

It has become apparent that the most successful vaccines mimic infection by actively targeting the innate phase of the immune response and modulating or enhancing the interface bridged by APCs. The immune response to a vaccine can be substantially improved

through the use of adjuvants, Ponatinib datasheet which stimulate the innate immune response by providing elements that are normally present in most pathogens but absent from a highly purified antigen. The vaccines which we know most about tend to be those that include an adjuvant, as the effects of these compounds on the innate immune system and the downstream adaptive response can be studied both in isolation and in combination with antigen. There are several points during the innate response at which adjuvanted vaccines are known or believed to influence the subsequent adaptive immune response, thereby initiating a long-lasting immune response. This includes modulating or mimicking the interaction between PAMPs and innate receptors such as TLRs; influencing or promoting intracellular signalling pathways; enhancing antigen uptake by APCs;

and up-regulating or modifying cell-surface crosstalk between APCs and naïve T cells. Some examples of specific adjuvanted vaccines that exert direct effects on the innate immune response are discussed in Chapter 4 – Vaccine adjuvants. We are increasingly able to understand the balance between mechanisms of immune activation and immune regulation. In Vasopressin Receptor parallel, the detailed assessment of the immunological mechanism of action of vaccines helps us to achieve effective immune stimulation without inducing a chronic inflammatory state. This information also helps us to reassess the role of vaccines and natural infections as potential triggers of autoimmune diseases. Recently, much effort has been devoted to the design of vaccines that induce CD8+ T cell responses, as they have a central role in the host response to viral infections and cancers.