The relationship of the derived classes to specific clinical characteristics was investigated.

Results. Two and three classes of OCD syndromes emerge from the analyses. The two-class solution describes

lesser and greater co-morbidity classes and the more descriptive three-class solution is characterized by: (1) an OCD simplex class, in which major depressive disorder (MDD) is the most frequent additional disorder; (2) an OCD co-morbid tic-related class, in which tics are prominent and affective selleck screening library syndromes are considerably rarer; and (3) an OCD co-morbid affective-related class in which PD and affective syndromes are highly represented. The OCD co-morbid tic-related class is predominantly male and characterized by high conscientiousness. The OCD co-morbid affective-related class is predominantly female, has a young age at onset, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) features, high scores on the ‘taboo’ factor of OCD symptoms, and low conscientiousness.

Conclusions. OCD can be classified into three classes based on co-morbidity. Membership within a class is differentially associated with other clinical characteristics. These classes, if replicated, should have important implications for research and clinical endeavors.”
“Attentional bias in substance-dependent individuals is the tendency to automatically direct the attention to substance-related cues in the environment. Attentional bias is known to be

selleck chemical associated with clinical measures such as relapse or successful quitting in smokers. It has been suggested that attentional bias emerges as a consequence of dopaminergic activity evoked by substance-related cues. The current functional magnetic resonance imaging study employed a dopaminergic challenge in order to test whether brain activation associated with attentional bias in smokers could be modulated by a dopamine antagonist. A total of 25 smokers were compared with 24 controls. Participants were scanned twice while performing Ivacaftor cost a pictorial attentional bias task. Haloperidol (2 mg), a selective D2/D3 dopamine antagonist, or placebo was orally administered 4 h before each scanning session in a double-blind randomized cross-over design. Imaging analyses were performed

in a priori selected regions of interest. Results showed that smokers had enhanced brain activation compared with controls in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (r-DLPFC), and left superior parietal lobe (I-SPL) after placebo. Group x medication interactions were found in the dACC and r-DLPFC, with no differences between groups in these regions after haloperidol. The current findings suggest that a pharmacologically induced reduction in dopamine normalizes brain activation associated with attentional bias in the dACC and DLPFC in smokers, probably because salience of these cues is no longer detected when dopamine activity is reduced. Neuropsychopharmacology (2012) 37, 2772-2779; doi:10.1038/npp.2012.

We assessed the feasibility and safety of performing single setting bilateral laparoscopic orchiopexy in boys with bilateral intra-abdominal testes.

Materials and Methods: A single surgeon experience was reviewed. The surgical technique was similar in all cases and on each

side, including infra-umbilical access, diagnostic evaluation, peritoneal mobilization lateral to the spermatic vessels and E7080 supplier inferior to the vas deferens, gubernacular transection, and a decision for or against a Fowler-Stephens procedure and testis relocation into the scrotum with fixation. Followup consisted of physical examination 14 days, 6 months and 1 year postoperatively, when testicular position and size were assessed. Intraoperative and postoperative MLN2238 in vitro complications were noted.

Results: Single setting bilateral laparoscopic orchiopexy was attempted in a total of 42 testes in 21 boys with a median age of 9 months (range 7 to 52). It was completed in a total of 36 testes in 18 boys. All procedures were performed on an outpatient basis. Of the 42 testes orchiopexy was performed in 4 with Fowler-Stephens ligation, including at a 1 and 2-stage procedure in 2 each. Although the latter 2 cases

account for 2 of the 3 not completed at a single setting, excellent outcomes were achieved in these cases at the second setting, yielding bilateral intrascrotal testes in each. A third boy required a subsequent open procedure for relocation of a testis from an inferior pubic/superior scrotal position to a more dependent portion of the scrotum. Testicular position after laparoscopy was the mid lower scrotum in 38 cases, upper scrotum in 3 and inferior pubic/superior scrotal in 1. Atrophy was noted in 2 of the 42 testes (19 of 21 boys) at 6-month followup, including in 1 boy who underwent

a 1-stage Fowler-Stephens procedure and I who underwent nonFowler-Stephens orchiopexy. Of the 21 boys 16 required only 1 surgery to achieve viable intrascrotal testes at 1-year followup. Of the 21 boys 19 (91%) ultimately achieved bilateral viable intrascrotal testes. There was no correlation between patient age and the likelihood of success or failure. No patient experienced any complications or hospital admissions.

Conclusions: In boys with bilateral intra-abdominal testes single Benzatropine setting bilateral laparoscopic orchiopexy can be performed safely on an outpatient basis with a high degree of success. Most boys undergo a single surgery with the testes relocated to a satisfactory intrascrotal position without atrophy.”
“Purpose: Prader-Willi syndrome is associated with hypogonadism. Cryptorchidism is found in 93% of cases and considered a phenotypic criterion. Men with Prader-Willi syndrome are thought to be infertile. To study the fertility probability in boys with Prader-Willi syndrome we analyzed testicular histology in 8 prepubertal boys and 1 man.

“
“Objectives: To determine clinical characteristics and frequency of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 gene (LRRK2) mutations in a cohort of patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) from Argentina.

Background: Variation in the LRRK2 gene represents the most common genetic determinant of PD, only few data are available from Latin-America.

Design/methods: Informed consent was obtained and all studies were approved by the Institutional Review Boards. Fifty five consecutive PD patients were recruited. A structured interview and neurological examination were used to collect demographic and clinical information. Blood samples

were obtained and DNA extracted from patient venous blood. All LRRK2 exons from 25 exon to 51 exon were screened in all patients.

Results: Clinical and molecular data of 55 patients with PD were analyzed. Mean age was 68.8 +/- 10.6 years. Jewish and Basque ancestries were found positive in 9 and 7 patients, respectively; family history IWP-2 nmr of PD was identified in 16 patients. The G2019S mutation was present in 3 Ashkenazi Jewish subjects (5.45%); all of them reported family history of PD in first-degree relatives. Although Argentina possesses one of the most important Basque communities outside Spain, non R1414G mutation was identified in this cohort. Eleven single polymorphisms (SNP) were identified in this cohort. The mean age at onset was higher in G2019S mutation carriers than non-carriers (66.67

vs 58.78 years). Asymmetrical tremor as initial symptom and non-motor symptoms occurred at similar

frequencies in both groups. The G2019S Dactolisib nmr mutation carriers showed a non significant increase in dyskinesias, and 2/3 developed Dopamine Dysregulation Syndrome and visual hallucinations. Systemic disorder identified in G2019S mutation carriers included: celiac disease, hypothyroidism, Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis and arterial hypertension.

Conclusions: The prevalence of LRRK2 G2019S mutation in this Argentinean cohort was similar to other international series, with a higher prevalence in Ashkenazi Jewish. The phenotype was indistinguishable from patients with idiopathic PD. Interestingly, we identified immune mediated disorders in two PD patients carrying the G2019S mutation. Within this context, recent studies have identified full-length LRRK2 as a relatively Dichloromethane dehalogenase common constituent of many cell types in the immune system including human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Nevertheless, a casual association could not be excluded and the analysis of more extensive series is required. (c) 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“MicroRNAs are short noncoding, endogenous RNA species that posttranscriptionally inhibit gene expression by targeting the untranslated region (UTR) of mRNAs. Recently, it was shown that miR-29 inhibits expression of extracellular matrix proteins such as collagens, suggesting an antifibrotic function of miR-29.

In contrast, the RBP and haptoglobin precursor allele 1 were much decreased in the MCI group; those expressions were more weak or absent in AD group, and correlated with disease severity and progression. These findings suggest that the CSF levels of both RBP and haptoglobin precursor allele 1 may be candidate biomarkers for the progression of normal to MCI to AD. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Purpose: We assessed the correlation between reduced renal function and parenchymal volume following partial nephrectomy.

Materials and Methods: In 21 of 42 patients with

tumors in a solitary kidney who were enrolled in a study measuring function before and after surgery underwent computerized tomography, and measurement of the glomerular filtration rate and estimated glomerular filtration rate (the latter at baseline and 2 to Citarinostat mouse 6 months) before and after surgery. A segmentation algorithm was used to measure renal parenchymal volume. The percent of renal parenchymal volume loss was correlated with the percent Pevonedistat ic50 loss in glomerular filtration rate using the Pearson correlation coefficient.

Results: Mean +/- SD net preoperative volume was 284 +/- 67 cc (range 179 to 413) and mean net postoperative volume was 240 +/- 61 cc (range 119

to 346) with an absolute functional volume loss of between 5 and 160 cc. The average percent of parenchymal volume loss was 15% (range -2% to 47%). The mean loss of the measured glomerular filtration rate 3 days postoperatively was 33.9% (range -70.7% to 74.4%) and the estimated glomerular filtration rate 2 to 6 months postoperatively was 19.7% (-6.0% to 45.5%). There was a low degree of correlation between the percent

volume loss and the percent measured glomerular filtration rate loss at 3 days (r=0.28, p=0.22). However, there was a moderate degree of correlation between the percent volume loss and the percent estimated glomerular filtration rate loss at 2 to 6 months (r=0.48, p=0.03).

Conclusions: In patients with partial nephrectomy the renal parenchymal volume loss correlates best ifoxetine with the renal function loss several months after surgery. Estimates of volume loss may be useful for predicting postoperative renal function when planning partial nephrectomy in patients with a solitary kidney.”
“Dichotic sound discrimination is influenced by either visual or vestibular stimulation. This study investigated the effect of simultaneous gaze and vestibular inputs on dichotic sound discrimination. The subjects (n = 12) closed their eyes or gazed at a red target light placed at a distance of 50 cm from their eyes, and the ITD discrimination test was simultaneously performed in either the supine or in the right lateral decubitus position, in which gravitational linear acceleration causes utricular stimulation in the lower ear.

Materials and Methods: We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of patients who underwent salvage radical prostatectomy at the Mayo Clinic between 1990 and 1999, and those who underwent salvage cryotherapy at M. D. Anderson Cancer Center between 1992 and 1995. Eligibility criteria were prostate specific antigen less than 10 ng/ml, post-radiation therapy biopsy showing Gleason score 8 or less and prior radiation therapy alone without pre-salvage or post-salvage hormonal therapy. We assessed the rates of biochemical disease-free survival, disease specific survival and overall Gemcitabine price survival in each

group. Biochemical failure was assessed using the 2 definitions of 1) prostate specific antigen

greater than 0.4 ng/ml and 2) 2 increases above the nadir prostate specific antigen.

Results: Mean followup was 7.8 years for the salvage radical prostatectomy group and 5.5 years for the salvage cryotherapy group. Compared to salvage cryotherapy, salvage radical prostatectomy resulted in superior biochemical disease-free survival by both definitions of biochemical failure (prostate specific antigen greater than 0.4 ng/ml, salvage cryortherapy 21% vs salvage radical prostatectomy 61% at 5 years, p <0.001; 2 increases above nadir with salvage cryotherapy 42% vs Savolitinib solubility dmso salvage radical prostatectomy 66% at 5 years, p = 0.002) and in superior overall survival (at 5 years salvage cryotherapy 85% vs salvage radical prostatectomy 95%, p = 0.001). There was no significant difference in disease specific survival (at 5 years salvage cryotherapy 96% vs salvage

radical prostatectomy 98%, p = 0.283). After adjusting for post-radiation therapy biopsy Gleason sum and pre-salvage treatment serum prostate specific antigen on multivariate analysis salvage radical prostatectomy remained superior to salvage cryotherapy for the end points of any increase in prostate specific antigen greater than 0.4 ng/ml (HR 0.24, p <0.0001), 2 increases in prostate specific antigen (HR 0.47, p = 0.02) and overall survival (HR 0.21, p = 0.01).

Conclusions: Young, healthy patients with recurrent prostate cancer after radiation therapy should consider salvage radical prostatectomy as it offers superior biochemical Immune system disease-free survival and may potentially offer the best chance of cure.”
“Purpose: We evaluated clinicopathological features and outcomes in patients with penile squamous cell carcinoma.

Materials and Methods: We studied 333 patients with homogeneous surgical treatment, including circumcision in 4, local excision in 2, partial penectomy in 194 and total penectomy in 133. Of the patients 153 also underwent bilateral groin dissection. Followup was 8 to 453 months (average 100).

Results: The usual type of squamous cell carcinoma was noted in 65% of cases.

Laboratory investigations, molecular studies and longer followup are needed to approach the question of early malignant alterations after augmentation cystoplasty in animals and patients.”
“In

recent years, the widespread use of chlorpyrifos (CPF) has aroused concerns regarding its potential neurotoxic effects, especially in developing individuals. One of the major consequences of CPF exposure is mood disorders such as depression. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated susceptibility to depression in populations with a history of CPF exposure. Our previous study indicated that repeated CPF exposure in doses from 10 to 160 mg/kg elicits depression- and anxiety-like alterations. However, whether this alteration is due to persistent inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) was not determined. In this study, we used lower doses of CPF to avoid evident inhibition of AChE to investigate PX-478 cell line other potential target systems that contribute to CPF’s neurotoxic

effect. Four-week-old adolescent male rats were repeatedly exposed to CPF at doses of 2.5, 5, or 10 mg/kg (s.c., 10 days) and then were subjected to either neurobehavioral testing or immunoblot analysis. Depression-like behaviors as manifested by increased immobility time was observed in force swimming test, while immunoblot analysis revealed a dramatically increased phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3 beta) in the hippocampus and striatum, with no effect on the levels of Wnt2, GSK-3

beta, or beta-catenin. Idasanutlin These results suggest a noncholinergic mechanism, the hyper-phosphorylation of GSK-3 beta, which may contribute to the cellular neurotoxicity of CPF, thus increasing the susceptibility to mood disorders. (c) 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The ability of microorganisms to assimilate aromatic substances as alternative carbon sources is the basis of biodegradation of natural as well as industrial aromatic compounds. In this study, Corynebacterium glutamicum was grown on benzoate as sole carbon and energy source. To extend the scarce knowledge about physiological PAK6 adaptation processes occurring in this cell compartment, the membrane proteome was investigated under quantitative and qualitative aspects by applying shotgun proteomics to reach a comprehensive survey. Membrane proteins were relatively quantified using an internal standard metabolically labeled with (15)N. Altogether, 40 proteins were found to change their abundance during growth on benzoate in comparison to glucose. A global adaptation was observed in the membrane of benzoate-grown cells, characterized by increased abundance of proteins of the respiratory chain, by a starvation response, and by changes in sulfur metabolism involving the regulator McbR. Additional to the relative quantification, stable isotope-labeled synthetic peptides were used for the absolute quantification of the two benzoate transporters of C. glutamicum, BenK and BenE.

These effects are likely explained by long-term associations formed between the auditory and visual components

of such events. It is not certain whether such crossmodal recruitment buy Silmitasertib can occur in the absence of explicit conditioning, semantic factors, or long-term association; nor is it clear whether primary sensory cortices can be recruited in such paradigms. In the present study we tested the hypothesis that crossmodal cortical recruitment would occur even after a brief exposure to bimodal stimuli without semantic association. We used positron emission tomography, and an apparatus allowing presentation of spatially and temporally congruous audiovisual stimuli (noise bursts and light flashes). When presented with only the auditory or visual components of the bimodal stimuli, naive subjects showed only modality-specific cortical activation, as expected. However, subjects who had previously been exposed to the audiovisual stimuli showed increased cerebral blood flow in the primary visual cortex when presented with sounds alone. Functional connectivity analysis suggested that the auditory cortex was the source of visual cortex activity. This crossmodal activation appears to be the result of implicit associations of the two stimuli, likely driven by their spatiotemporal characteristics; it was observed after a relatively

short period of exposure (similar to 45 min), and lasted for a relatively long period after the initial exposure (similar to 1 day). The findings Selleck H 89 indicate that auditory and visual

cortices interact with one another to a larger degree than typically assumed. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Objective: We sought to bioengineer a nonimmunogenic tracheal tubular matrix of 6 cm in length and test its structural, functional, and immunologic properties in vitro and in vivo.

Methods: Twelve-centimeter tracheal segments were harvested from Yorkshire boars. Half of each segment Everolimus cost was subjected to a detergent-enzymatic method (containing sodium deoxycholate/DNase lavations) of decellularization for as many cycles as needed, and the other half was stored in phosphate-buffered saline at 4 degrees C as a control. Bioengineered and control tracheas were then implanted in major histocompatibility complex-unmatched pigs (allograft) or mice (xenograft) heterotopically for 30 days. Structural and functional analysis and immunostaining were performed after each detergent-enzymatic method cycle and transplantation.

Results: Compared with control tracheas, bioengineered matrices displayed no major histocompatibility complex class I and II antigens after 17 detergent-enzymatic method cycles, without significant (P > .05) differences in their strain ability (rupture force, 56.1 +/- 3.3 vs 55.5 +/- 2.4 N; tissue deformation at 203% +/- 13% vs 200% +/- 8% or 12.2 +/- 0.8 vs 12 +/- 0.5 cm; and applied maximum force, 173.4 +/- 3.2 vs 171.5 +/- 4.6 N).

PDE10A is highly expressed in the brain and functions to metabolically inactivate the important second messengers cAMP and cGMR Here we describe effects of a potent and orally bioavailable PDE10A inhibitor [2-(6-chloropyridin-3-yl)-4-(2-methoxyethoxy)-7,8-dihydropyrido[4,3-d]pyrimidin-6(5H)-yl](imidazo[1,5-a]pyridin-1-yl)methanone] (THPP-1) on striatal signaling pathways, in behavioral tests that predict antipsychotic potential, and assays that measure episodic-like memory in rat and executive function in rhesus monkey. THPP-1

exhibits nanomolar potency on the PDE10A enzyme, demonstrates excellent pharmacokinetic properties in multiple preclinical animal species, and is selective for PDE10A over other PDE families of enzymes. THPP-1 Selleckchem Silmitasertib Rabusertib concentration significantly increased phosphorylation

of proteins in the striatum involved in synaptic plasticity, including the a-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-proprionic acid receptor (AMPA) GluR1 subunit, extracellular receptor kinase (ERK), and cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB). THPP-1 produced dose-dependent effects in preclinical assays predictive of antipsychotic activity including attenuation of MK-801-induced psychomotor activation and condition avoidance responding in rats. At similar plasma exposures, THPP-1 significantly increased object recognition memory in rat and attenuated a ketamine-induced deficit in the object retrieval detour task in rhesus monkey. These findings suggest that PDE10A inhibitors have the potential to impact multiple symptomatic domains of schizophrenia including positive symptoms and cognitive impairment.

This article is part of a Special Issue entitled ‘Cognitive Enhancers’. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The purpose was to assess the validity of predicting peak oxygen uptake ((V) over dotO(2)peak) from Ratings of Perceived Exertion volitional

exhaustion. During GXT, oxygen uptake (VO(2)) and RPE were measured Individual linear regressions between (V) over dotO(2) and RPE < 15 were extrapolated to RPE 20 in until order to predict (V) over dotO(2)peak Actual and predicted VO(2)peak were not significantly different (13.9 +/- 3.0 vs 14.2 +/- 3.3 ml kg(-1) min(-1), respectively, p = 26) The Pearson product moment correlation between actual and predicted (V) over dotO(2)peak was high (r = 0 82). The 95% limits of agreement analysis on these values (bias +/- 1 96SD) was -0.3 +/- 3.7 ml kg(-1) min(-1). Results suggested that RPE <= 15 elicited during a sub-maximal GXT provides accurate VO(2)peak prediction. Therefore, it is not necessary to perform GXT to voluntary exhaustion to determine VO(2)peak in obese women.”
“The demonstrated functional interaction of metabotropic glutamate 5 (mGlu(5)) receptors with N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors has prompted speculation that their activation may offer a potential treatment for aspects of schizophrenia.

These results indicate that caffeic acid phenethyl ester may represent a novel and effective therapeutic for the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and these significant neuroprotective effects observed in a commonly used amyotrophic lateral sclerosis mouse model validate the therapeutic potential of caffeic acid phenethyl ester for slowing disease progression by attenuating the neuroinflammation and motor neuron cell death associated with clinical amyotrophic lateral sclerosis pathology. (C) 2012 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Objective: To examine depressive behavior and early coronary artery atherogenesis in 3,6 socially housed selleck chemicals female cynomolgus

monkeys, an established model of atherogenesis and depression. EPZ-6438 in vivo Coronary heart disease (CHD) is caused by coronary artery atherosclerosis (CAA) and its sequelae which develop over a period of decades. Thus, in prospective studies of depression and CHD, CAA was likely present at baseline in most subjects who experienced

cardiac events. Little is known about the relationship between depression and CAA. Methods: The monkeys were free of atherosclerosis before being fed a diet containing moderate amounts of fat and cholesterol for 52 months. Depressed behavior and activity levels recorded in weekly 15-minute focal samples, telemetered 24-hour heart rate, plasma total (TPC) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLC), luteal phase serum progesterone concentrations, basal cortisol, cortisol response to corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), and CAA extent were assessed. Results:

Time spent in depressed behavior over 4 years was significantly associated with early CAA (r =.73, p < .001), as were activity level, 24-hour heart rate, TPC, HDLC, cortisol response to CRH, and mean peak progesterone (all p <= 0.05). Depressed females had four times the CAA compared with nondepressed females. Conclusions: Depression in primates is associated with perturbations in multiple CHD risk factors and accelerated early atherogenesis. These data are consistent with the hypotheses that depression and CAA both stem from a common mechanism and that depression may cause CAA.”
“Protistan species are found in about almost every environment on our planet, and have adapted in many ways to survive and thrive under dramatically different conditions. Some of the most diverse adaptations involve symbiotic relationships with prokaryotes. Described symbioses primarily involve heterotrophic protists, including ciliates, Rhizaria (amoebae, foraminifera, radiolaria) and flagellate taxa. Recently there has been an increase in reports of environmental isolates that represent novel associations, which suggest that the symbioses are probably more widespread than conventionally thought.

Accordingly, in mental disorders with sustained anxiety, rituals predominate the behavior and consequently reduce functionality. Finally, the adaptive value of precautionary behavior, including rituals, lies in providing individuals with the opportunity to practice

defensive means safely, and thus to prepare for the eventuality of real danger. Accordingly, the prevalence of anxiety in human and animal behavior accords with the “”better safe than sorry”" principle. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The homeostatic renewal of the intestinal epithelium depends on regulation of proliferation and differentiation of stem/progenitor cells residing in a specific site, called the ‘stem cell niche.’ Thus, the reconstitution of the microenvironment of the stem cell niche may allow us to maintain intestinal stem/progenitor cells in culture for a longer period. Although epidermal growth factor (EGF) LY411575 is conventionally used as a supplement of intestinal epithelial cell culture, little has been known regarding a role of EGF signaling in a stem/progenitor cell population. In this study, we attempted to clarify the role of EGF signaling in intestinal stem/progenitor cells, and to establish a culture system in which these cells could be maintained with normal differentiation potential. We first examined the expression ICG-001 pattern of EGF and its receptor, EGFR, and inhibited EGF signaling

in mouse intestines. Next, we cultured intestinal cells isolated from mouse and human intestines in the presence of EGF and analyzed the function of EGF signaling in cultured cells. In both embryonic and adult mouse intestines, EGFR and EGF were expressed in immature epithelial cells and adjacent fibroblasts, respectively, and EGF signaling was essential to activate proliferation and inhibit apoptosis of intestinal stem/progenitor cells. Activation of EGF signaling also stimulated proliferation and suppressed apoptosis, both of which are necessary to maintain mouse and human intestinal epithelial cells in culture. Moreover, in these cultured

epithelial Amobarbital cells, putative intestinal stem/progenitor cells persisted longer, and gave rise to different types of differentiated intestinal epithelial cells. We conclude that EGF signaling is indispensable for activation of proliferation and inhibition of unexpected cell death, not only in the intestinal stem cell niche, but also in culture of primitive intestinal epithelial cells. Laboratory Investigation (2010) 90, 1425-1436; doi: 10.1038/labinvest.2010.150; published online 16 August 2010″
“Fear conditioning with its neurological basis in the amygdala and associated structures provides an important model of anxiety disorders. However, this review will argue for a distinction between fear-provoking immediate and anxiety-provoking potential threats, with the amygdala processing immediate threats and the cingulate cortex (and insular) processing potential threats.