4 at 30 °C. Mitochondrial respiration was monitored polarographically by an oxygraph equipped with a Clark-type oxygen electrode (Hansatech instruments, oxytherm electrode unit, UK), and the mitochondrial

membrane potential was determined spectrofluorimetrically using 10 μM safranine O as a probe ( Zanotti and Azzone, 1980) in a Model F-4500 Hitachi fluorescence spectrophotometer (Tokyo, Japan) at the 495/586 nm excitation/emission wavelength pair; these assays were performed in the presence of 0.1 mM EGTA and 2 mM K2HPO4. Ca2+ efflux was monitored spectrofluorimetrically using 150 nM Calcium Green 5N (Molecular Probes, OR, USA) as a probe, at the 506/531 nm excitation/emission wavelength pair ( Rajdev and Reynolds, 1993). Mitochondrial swelling was estimated spectrophotometrically from the decrease in apparent absorbance at 540 nm, using a Model U-2910 Hitachi spectrophotometer (Japan). The oxidation of selleck chemicals llc mitochondrial http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Trichostatin-A.html NAD(P)H (NADPH + NADH) was monitored in a F-4010 Hitachi fluorescence spectrophotometer at the 366/450 nm excitation/emission wavelength pair ( Fagian et

al., 1990). ROS were monitored spectrofluorimetrically using 1 μM Amplex red (Molecular Probes, OR, USA) and 1 UI/ml horseradish peroxidase at the 563/587 nm excitation/emission wavelength pair in a Model F-4500 Hitachi fluorescence spectrophotometer ( Votyakova and Reynolds, 2001). Mitochondrial ATP was determined by means of the firefly luciferin–luciferase assay system (Lemasters and Hackenbrock, 1976). After a 10-min treatment with GA, the mitochondrial suspension (1 mg protein/ml) was centrifuged at 9000 × g for 5 min at 4 °C, and the pellet was treated with 1 ml of ice-cold 1 M HClO4. After centrifugation at 14,000 × g for 5 min at 4 °C, 100-μl aliquots of the supernatants were neutralized with 70 μl of 2 M KOH, suspended in 100 mM Tris–HCl, pH 7.8 (1 ml

final volume) and centrifuged at 15,000 × g for 15 min. Bioluminescence was measured in the supernatant with a Sigma/Aldrich assay kit according to the manufacturer’s instructions, using an AutoLumat LB953 Luminescence photometer (Perkin-Elmer Life Sciences, Wilbad, HA-1077 clinical trial Germany). Mitochondrial membrane fluidity was evaluated by fluorescence anisotropy (r). Mitochondria (0.4 mg protein) were incubated in 2 ml (final volume) of standard reaction medium containing 0.5 μM 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH) for 30 min, at 37 °C, in the presence of GA. Fluorescence was measured in a Model F-4500 Hitachi fluorescence spectrophotometer equipped with polarizer system (Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan) at the 362/432 nm excitation/emission wavelength pair. Fluorescence anisotropy data were calculated using the formula r = lΠ − I⊥/IΠ + 2I⊥, where lΠ and I⊥ refer to the intensity of the fluorescence light emission measured parallel and perpendicularly to the polarization plane of the excitation beam, respectively ( Praet et al., 1986 and Martins et al., 2008).