Methods Animal sampling All procedures were approved under The University of Vermont’s Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) protocol 11-021, and Institutional Biosafety Committee selleck products (IBC) protocol 10-029. Five male alpacas, fed a mixture of timothy, clover and rye supplemented with fresh fruits (bananas and apples), and maintained under normal conditions at the Hespe Garden Ranch and Rescue (http://​www.​hespegarden.​com/​, Washington, Vermont, USA), were

stomach tubed while sedated by a licensed veterinarian. Forestomach samples (20 ml), which included partially digested feed and fluid, were kept on ice and then frozen at –20°C on the day of collection. Samples were maintained frozen until DNA extraction. Age at sampling was 19 months (alpaca 9), 21 months (alpaca 6), 32 months (alpacas 5 and 8) and 7.5 years (alpaca 4). Microbial DNA isolation, clone library construction, sequencing and real-time PCR Microbial DNA from forestomach samples was isolated as described by Yu and Morrison [20]. Methanogen 16S rRNA genomic AZD1080 sequences were amplified from purified forestomach microbial DNA by PCR using the methanogen-specific primers Met86F and Met1340R [21]. PCR reactions were performed with Taq polymerase from Invitrogen (USA) on a C1000 Thermal Cycler (BioRad) under the following conditions: hot start (4 min, 95°C),

followed by 35 cycles of denaturation (30s, 95°C), annealing (30s, 58°C) and extension (2 min, 72°C), and ending with a final extension period (10 min, 72°C). Methanogen 16S rRNA gene libraries were constructed by cloning PCR-amplified products from Emricasan mouse each forestomach DNA sample into the pCR2.1-TOPO vector, using the TOPO TA cloning kit (Invitrogen, USA). Recombinant plasmids from bacterial clones negative for α-complementation in the presence of X-gal (5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-beta-D-galactopyranoside) were

screened by colony-PCR with the M13 Forward and M13 Reverse primers. PCR products from positive bacterial clones were used directly as templates for Sanger DNA sequencing with the new forward and reverse primers Met643F (5′-GGA CCA CCW RTG GCG AAG GC-3′) and Met834R (5′-CTT GCG RCC GTA CTT CCC AGG-3′). Nucleotide sequencing was performed by the DNA Analysis Facility at the Vermont Cancer Center (The University of Vermont). 3-oxoacyl-(acyl-carrier-protein) reductase Real-time PCR was used to estimate cell densities from forestomach contents of individual alpacas using the mcrA-F and mcrA-R primer pair as described by Denman et al. [22]. Computational analysis of nucleotide sequences ChromasPro (Version 1.5, Technelysium Pty Ltd) was used to proofread the methanogen 16S rRNA gene sequences from positive clones and assemble them into contigs of 1 255-1 265 bp in length. Each clone was designated by “”AP”" to indicate it originated from alpaca, the animal sampled (4, 5, 6, 8 or 9) and a specific identification number.