Similarly, restriction digest analysis using Sfi1 showed that all strains were clonal (data INK1197 manufacturer not shown). The fact that all our strains showed identical pattern in antibiotic susceptibility patterns, pathogeniCity genes, and the diversity of mobile genetic elements strongly suggest that this population of O1 strains that have

caused outbreaks since 1994 to as recent as 2007 are clonally related. The absence of the st gene (which is common among non-01 and non-0139 strains) [19] and the absence of the classical biotype-specific tcpA and hylA genes in these strains further indicates that genetic exchanges between this population and other V. cholerae serotypes that might be in circulation

in Kenya have been highly restricted. In a previous study by Jiang et al. [54] it was noted that a number of O1 strains from Kenya failed to cluster with those isolated from other parts of the world when using Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) genotyping technique. Similarly, the study by Pugliese et al. [7] showed that strains that carried the SXT-element alone or in combination with an incC plasmid belonged to a unique RAPD cluster IV. In the same study [7], strains without this ICE were shown to belong to other cluster types shared A-1155463 manufacturer by isolates from Ethiopia and Somali. It is also interesting to note that none of the isolates from 1998-1999 study shared a RAPD cluster with strains isolated in India and Bahrain isolated in 1948 and 1978. Such observations have led to a theory that some toxigenic V. cholerae strains circulating in different countries may not have originated from a single clone in Asia as is popularly believed, Glutathione peroxidase but

may have been derived locally from genetic exchange between the Asian O1 strains and the O1 or non-O1 strains from local environments [54]. Figure 2 PFGE of Not1 digested genomic DNA of V . Inaba strains isolated from various regions of Kenya between 1994 and 2007. Genomic DNA from representative strains was digested with Not1 restriction enzyme and loaded as follows; M: molecular weight see more marker (S. Braenderup), Kw: Kwale, Sy: Siaya, Mn: Malindi, Mk: Makindu, Nr: Nairobi, Kb: Kibwezi, Mo: Mombasa, Bu: Busia, Kf: Kilifi, Ka: Kakuma, Da: Daadab, Ma; Mandera. The year when each of the isolate included in this experiment are also indicated. Conclusions We observed that antibiotic susceptibility and genomic content of the strains bearing the SXT/R391-like ICE that have been in circulation in Kenya between 1994 and 2007 has not changed significantly and there are indications that these strains have undergone minimum genotypic changes during this entire period. In the absence of older isolates for molecular characterization, it is not possible to determine whether other clones of V.