Samples from 32 different brands of Pilsner beer (except

for one sample, all brewed in Brazil) were obtained at local groceries, stored at ambient temperature (25 °C or less) under appropriate conditions and used before their expiration dates. All extractions were performed manually using 65 μm polydimethylsiloxane/divinylbenzene (PDMS/DVB) SPME fibres (Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA) coupled to a holder and previously conditioned according to the supplier’s instructions. The selection of this fibre and of other HS-SPME–GC–MS operational conditions was based on earlier studies (da Silva, Augusto, & Poppi, 2008). For the extractions, samples were enclosed in 16 mL glass vials capped with Teflon/silicone septa (Pierce, Rockford, IL, USA). Sample temperature during extraction was controlled with ±0.1 °C using a Buparlisib in vitro circulating water bath (Cole-Parmer, Vernon Hills, IL, USA). Toasted barley from a local market, reagent grade NaCl (J.T. Baker, São Paulo, Brazil) and caffeine (Sigma–Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) were also used, Selleck Veliparib as well as a C8–C20n-alkane standard mix (Fluka, Büchs, Switzerland) for measurement of linear temperature programming retention indexes (LTPRI) of the detected peaks. All chromatographic analysis were performed

on a Saturn 2000 Ion Trap GC–MS (Varian, Walnut Creek, CA, USA) equipped with a 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm HP-50 column (Agilent Technologies, Wilmington, DE, USA) and a split-splitless injector operated in the splitless mode, fitted with an adequate deactivated glass liner for SPME. The oven temperature was programmed as follows: 2 min at 40 °C → 10 °C min−1 → 140 °C → 7 °C min−1 → 3 min at 250 °C. The injector and the MS transfer line were kept at 210 and 280 °C, respectively. Helium

was used as carrier gas at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. The MS scan range was from 50 to 300 amu. Identification of the detected peaks was performed using the automated mass spectral deconvolution and identification system (AMDIS) software coupled to the NIST mass spectral search programme (NIST, Washington, DC, USA) and confirmed by LTPRI measured from chromatograms of selected samples spiked with the C8–C20n-alkane mixture. A total of 54 unique peaks, present in all analysed samples, were pre-selected for the modelling. Before analysis, beer bottles were cooled Ribose-5-phosphate isomerase at ∼5 °C and, immediately after opening, the bottle content was degassed in an ultrasonic bath for 15 min. Aliquots of 5 mL of degassed beer were transferred to a glass vial and 1.3500 g of NaCl was added. The vials were sealed and the samples magnetically stirred for 5 min at 50 °C. After this sample/headspace equilibration period, a PDMS/DVB fibre was exposed to the sample headspace for 30 min at the same temperature. The extracted analytes were immediately desorbed in the injection port of the GC–MS at 210 °C; the fibre was kept in the GC injector for 15 min to ensure total desorption and avoid inter-run carryover.

Aqueous two-phase systems (ATPS) are vital techniques used for the extraction, or even purification, of several compounds and biomolecules, due to their versatility, high effectiveness, high yield, selectivity, low cost and technological simplicity, as well as improved degree of purification. Moreover, ATPS usually allow the combination

SKI-606 of the recovery and purification steps (Cláudio et al., 2010 and Malpiedi et al., 2009). ATPS are generally described as two aqueous liquid phases that are immiscible at critical concentrations of the phase forming components. In the past decades, these systems have been widely applied in the separation/purification of proteins, enzymes, antibiotics, among other biomolecules of interest (Albertsson, 1986, Lima et al., 2002 and Wang et al., 2010). To promote the formation of ATPS, several compounds can be used, such as different polymers (Azevedo et al., 2009 and Silva and Meirelles, 2000), inorganic salts (Lima et al., 2002, Silva et al., 2009 and Souza et al., 2010), sugars (Chen et al., 2010, Wu et al.,

2008 and Wu NVP-AUY922 cell line et al., 2008), and more recently, ionic liquids (Freire et al., 2012, Gutowski et al., 2003, Neves et al., 2009 and Ventura et al., 2009). However, several of these ATPS forming components present some crucial disadvantages, when the objective is to apply them as separation systems for products that Arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase can easily suffer irreversible chemical alterations, and thus lose their main characteristics (for example, their antioxidant capacity). The high viscosity of polymer-based systems, the low window of potential ATPS based in sugars, and the high cost of ionic liquids, are some of the additional disadvantages that should be taken into account for a number of ATPS (Ooi et al., 2009). Thus, in this work, the use of polar hydroalcoholic ATPS was considered (Broinizi et al., 2007, Roesler et al., 2007 and Wang et al., 2010). These systems have already shown to be successful in the separation of enzymes, antibiotics, and

nucleic acids (Broinizi et al., 2007 and Louwrier, 1999). In this work, four alcohols (methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol and 2-propanol) and three salting-out ionic species (K3PO4, K2HPO4 and KH2PO4/K2HPO4) were studied through the formation of ATPS. Their phase diagrams, tie-lines and tie-line lengths were determined at 298 K and atmospheric pressure. Subsequently, these systems were evaluated toward their application as liquid–liquid separation processes for two antioxidants: vanillin and l-ascorbic acid. Both model systems and food waste materials were employed. The results gathered highlight a selective partitioning of both antioxidants, while maintaining their main chemical characteristics as unchanged.

Therefore, welders should take personal protection

measures including, mask and safety goggles, and the process should be performed in well-ventilated areas, and use local-exhaust ventilation to remove fumes and gases at their source in still air. None of the authors of this manuscript has declared any conflict of interest. “
“A 65-year-old Guatemalan woman presented to the hospital with two days of nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Her medical history included CIDP, requiring 40–60 mg of prednisone daily. Twenty years previously, she emigrated from Guatemala but visited her native country annually. Medications on admission included prednisone 60 mg daily. She had a prior positive Strongyloides serology (titer 2.11 index value) and peripheral eosinophilia PLX4720 (3400/mm3) without documentation of prior anti-helminthic treatment. On presentation, her vital signs were: blood pressure

94/72 mmHg, heart rate 158 beats/min, respiratory rate 26 breaths/min, oxygen saturation 94% on 2 L/min O2 via nasal cannula, and temperature 37.0 °C. Dorsomorphin in vitro Physical exam revealed rigors, dry mucous membranes, clear lung fields, and suprapubic tenderness. Her WBC count was 22,000/mm3 (19% bands and 0% eosinophils). Urinalysis revealed 22 WBC/high powered field. In the emergency department, she received IV fluids, ciprofloxacin, metronidazole, and methylprednisolone 100 mg IV. She was admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) and started on piperacillin-tazobactam. Phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase Methylprednisolone was discontinued and prednisone 30 mg twice daily was begun. Admission blood and urine cultures grew Escherichia coli. Stool studies were negative for enteric pathogens. On hospital day 2, her hemodynamic status improved and she was transferred to the

medical ward. On hospital day 5, she developed progressive hypoxemia. Contrast-enhanced chest CT identified small bilateral pleural effusions and diffuse perihilar and peripheral air space opacities. Chest X-ray on hospital day 8 demonstrated progressive bilateral infiltrates (Fig. 1). Bronchoscopy demonstrated blood throughout the tracheobronchial tree. Serial aliquots of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid revealed persistently hemorrhagic fluid. She was intubated and transferred to the ICU. Repeat WBC count was 24,000/mm3 (7% bands and 13% eosinophils), platelets 348,000/mm3, and prothrombin time 13.9 s. Given bronchoscopic evidence of DAH, she was treated with 1 g of methylprednisolone daily for two days. Prior to methylprednisolone, she received a dose of oral ivermectin (200 mcg/kg). The following day, BAL fluid returned positive for Strongyloides stercoralis ( Fig. 2). Corticosteroids were discontinued. She received subcutaneous ivermectin (200 mcg/kg) every other day for 4 doses. Repeat bronchoscopy on hospital day 9 showed resolving hemorrhage. Serologies were negative for ANCA, anti-GBM, ANA, HIV, and HTLV-1.

Such assumptions had legacy effects in risk assessment well after it was shown that initial failures to demonstrate RNAi in humans were due to using dsRNA molecules that were too long and induced a sequence non-specific interferon response and general cessation of translation (Bass, 2001 and Elbashir et al., 2001). dsRNAs developed for use as drugs in medicine have also floundered. Despite their huge potential and an initial rush to get them to

clinical testing, they have failed to work because they cannot be delivered at effective concentrations Ibrutinib research buy (Seyhan, 2011). Failure to achieve a man-made delivery system does not imply that all dsRNAs are safe because not all dsRNAs are equally efficiently taken up or stable (see Section 1.3.1), and the effects of some may be enough to cause harm at concentrations lower than needed to cause the intended trait (Zhao et al., 2001). Assumption-based deflection of risk is not unique to GMOs or dsRNA. For example,

scientific conflict on the appropriateness of the safety testing of the now withdrawn drug VIOXX arose early in the drug’s lifetime but was not taken seriously until harm became evident (Box 1). The assumptions behind the VIOXX approval and assumptions highlighted in the examples above demonstrate how regulatory bodies, rather than requiring evidence that a product is safe before allowing it to enter the marketplace, now tend to require proof of harm to withdraw the product from the marketplace. (1) VIOXX (also known as rofecoxib) is the trade name for an anti-inflammatory drug that was popular PLX-4720 among those who suffer from arthritis. The drug was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and sold from 1999. By the time it was withdrawn from the market in 2004, it was estimated to have caused 139,000 heart attacks and killed 26,000 people (Michaels, 2005 and Wadman, 2005). Of the three government regulators described in

the examples above, one is a food regulator (FSANZ), one is an environmental safety regulator (OGTR) and one has dual roles (CTNbio). Yet all used a priori assumptions that they did not need to do a risk assessment of novel dsRNA molecules, rather than requiring experimental evidence that these molecules caused no adverse Endonuclease effects. In addition, a recent review paper has also used a priori assumptions that did not capture sequence-determined risks ( Parrott et al., 2010) whereas a recent conference that included industry participation did consider sequence-determined risks when they acknowledged that the potential for off-target effects was due to potential pairing between siRNA and unintended transcripts of non-target genes ( CERA, 2011). In contrast to our findings, the conference concluded that existing safety evaluation protocols were adequate for identifying all adverse effects from dsRNA.

Importantly, if formulation is flexible, then

any changes in structure choice resulting from lexical and structural priming should also be accompanied by changes in the timecourse of formulation. Specifically, facilitating encoding of individual characters in Experiment 1 should result in an early accessibility effect: a first-fixated character should be produced in subject position more often if it had been primed than if it had not been primed, and speakers should spend more time fixating primed subject characters than unprimed subject characters immediately after picture onset (0–400 ms). Both results would indicate priority encoding of accessible characters before less accessible characters. This is analogous to the predicted effect of character codability on early formulation (Section 1.2), and indicates a shift towards linearly incremental planning. In contrast, facilitating encoding of sentence structure in Experiment 2 should reduce U0126 datasheet the likelihood of speakers fixating one character preferentially over the other character immediately after picture onset: speakers should be more likely to distribute their attention between two characters when producing a primed structure than an unprimed structure. This is similar to the predicted effect of event codability on formulation (Section 1.2) and illustrates a shift towards hierarchical incrementality.

Later in the formulation process (i.e., between 400 ms and speech onset),

the lexical and structural primes should both also influence the timing of gaze shifts from the first to the second character: lexical primes should reduce the length ABT-199 supplier ioxilan of gazes on a primed subject character by facilitating encoding of its name and structural primes should reduce the length of gazes on the subject character by facilitating encoding of the entire event. Importantly, despite similar outcomes, the reasons for these effects can be traced back to qualitative differences in planning strategies in the two experiments. In sum, in two experiments, we undertook a systematic analysis of the influence of non-relational and relational variables on the timecourse of formulation for simple event descriptions. Similar results were expected for the two variables influencing the ease of non-relational processing (character codability and lexical accessibility) and the two variables influencing the ease of relational processing (event codability and ease of generating linguistic structures). Analyses in each experiment first verified whether all variables had the expected effect on speakers’ descriptions of target events (i.e., structure choice). First, character codability was expected to influence the assignment of characters to subject or object position based on their relative ease of naming in both experiments, and lexical priming was expected to produce a similar effect in Experiment 1.

The result shows that NAC treatment completely blocks ginsenoside-Rh2-induced AMPK activation

(Fig. 5B) in HepG2 cells. These results indicate that AMPK activation is mediated by ginsenoside-Rh2-induced ROS generation. MAPKs are known to correlate with the pharmacological effects of ginsenosides. Ginsenoside-Rh2-induced late-phase activation of JNK is associated with the induction of apoptosis via the proteolytic dissociation of p21WAF/CIP1 from JNK1-containing complexes [29]. ERK activation inhibits ginseng metabolite, IH-901-induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest, via COX-2 induction [30]. The antiproliferative effect of ginsenoside-Rg1 is involved in the inhibition of ERK in cultured human arterial vascular smooth muscle cell [31]. Thus, we next examined whether the MAPK pathway is associated with ginsenoside-Rh2-induced www.selleckchem.com/screening/epigenetics-compound-library.html apoptosis

Selleck BIBW2992 and the antiapoptotic effects of AMPK in HepG2 cells. As shown in Fig. 6A, ginsenoside-Rh2 induces the activation of three MAPKs in a time-dependent manner. To determine whether the activity of the three MAPKs was involved in ginsenoside-Rh2-induced apoptosis, HepG2 cells were pretreated with 20 μM PD98059, SB203580, and SP600152, a selective inhibitor of ERK, p38 MAPK, and JNK, respectively. Cotreatment with ginsenoside-Rh2 and SB203580 (p38 MAPK inhibitor) causes cell death to increase from 20% to 50%, compared with ginsenoside-Rh2 treatment alone, suggesting that the inhibition of p38 MAPK can enhance ginsenoside-Rh2-induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells. However, there was no observed effect of ERK or JNK inhibition on cell death. To examine whether there was a correlation between AMPK and p38 MAPK activity, we investigated AMPK and p38 MAPK activation following each kinase inhibition by compound C or SB203580. As shown in Fig. 6C, inhibition of AMPK did not affect p38

MAPK activity, and inhibition of p38 MAPK did not affect AMPK activity, either. Therefore, it is likely that AMPK and p38 MAPK transmit its signal in an independent manner. Ginseng, the root of P. ginseng, is a medicinal herb that has been reported to have various biological effects, including anticarcinogenic activities. Ginseng extracts induce apoptosis, and decrease telomerase activity and cyclooxygenase-2 Gefitinib (COX-2) expression in human leukemia cells [32]. In addition, ginseng extracts suppress colon carcinogenesis induced by 1,2-dimethylhydrazine with inhibition of cell proliferation [33]. Among them, ginsenoside-Rh2 is recognized as a major active anticancer saponin [34]. Ginsenoside-Rg3 is known to metabolize to ginsenoside-Rh2 by human intestinal bacteria [35]. In this regard, the anticancer activity of two compounds has been compared in many reports. In the case of Hep3B cells, these two compounds induce apoptosis through a mitochondrial pathway [36].

There remains another DAPT possibility (perhaps a less popular view) that there is continued low rate of HIV replication. Two clinical studies have been initiated in subjects with undetectable plasma HIV levels. Raltegravir, an HIV integrase inhibitor, was added to the background therapy. Latent HIV is mostly integrated into host DNA but HIV may also form episomal circular DNA. The proportion of the circular form increases with raltegravir treatment. In the two clinical studies,

13/45 and 9/15 subjects, respectively, had detectable HIV circles which then decayed. This implies that some de novo infection of cells is ongoing. On the other hand, ART works well, with no evidence of sequence evolution in the HIV circles at 48 weeks. Is it possible that raltegravir is inducing a single round of HIV replication, to give an increase in HIV circles? Derek Sloan, Gilead Sciences, Foster City, CA, USA Like vorinostat, (VOR), romidepsin (RMD) is a histone

deacetylase inhibitor which is used clinically to treat cancer. Memory CD4+ T cells were taken from HIV subjects on suppressive ART; ex-vivo treatment with RMD (40 nM) induced a 6-fold increase in intracellular HIV RNA which persisted for 48 h. In contrast, a much higher concentration of VOR INCB018424 (1 μM) gave a 2 to 3-fold lower response which was only transient. RMD also increased levels of extracellular HIV RNA and virions. Encouragingly, IKBKE this ex-vivo induction of latent virus was seen at RMD concentrations that are below the levels of drug achieved in humans by clinical doses of RMD. Accordingly, in a Phase I/II trial in HIV-infected subjects on ART, RMD gave a better and more sustained response than VOR. About 1.5% of cells containing HIV provirus were activated. Although this is far too low a percentage to eliminate the latent

HIV reservoir, it is hoped that combination of such LRA, which give improved results in ex-vivo cell assays, may give better clinical efficacy. Gilead scientists have started screening for novel LRAs. “GS-1” has been identified as a hit by HTS. Research on this lead is at a very early stage. Gilead workers are also investigating other approaches. For example, GS-9620 is a Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) agonist and it acts as an immune stimulator. Although it is being evaluated in Phase II studies for the treatment of chronic HBV infections, the potential effect on HIV reservoirs is being investigated. In SIV-infected monkeys, oral dosing of TLR7 agonist induced the activation of immune effector cells such as CD8+ T cells and NK cells. Based on these data, TLR7 agonists are being further investigated for their effect on latent SIV reservoirs in monkeys which have good virological suppression. Another approach is to use anti-envelope antibodies.

Our goal was to use the CHANS Torin 1 mw approach to identify data, research needs and to set the stage for further assessment (e.g. feedbacks, time lags, surprises, sensu Liu et al., 2007) on how the socioeconomic system and the aquatic ecosystem have interacted and changed through time. Lake St. Clair (LSC), a shallow transboundary system in the Laurentian Great Lakes (Leach, 1991) (Fig. 1), connects Lakes Huron and Erie via the St. Clair River to the north and the Detroit River to the south. It is part of the Huron-Erie corridor. Lake St. Clair may seem small compared to the other Great Lakes, but it is the 11th largest lake

in surface area in the continental USA (Herdendorf, 1982 and Hunter and Simons, 2004). It also has about 1000 km of shoreline perimeter (Fig. 1). The LSC connecting channel contains three Areas of Concern as listed by the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, which are located in the St. Clair River, the Detroit River, and the Clinton River with a portion of the western lake shoreline (United States Environmental Protection Agency, access date see more 2 April 2012, http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/aoc/). The aggregate area of the local watersheds that drain to LSC (excluding the watershed of Lake Huron and other

upper Great Lakes) is 15,305 km2, with 59% of this area (8988 km2) on the Canadian side, and the remainder (6317 km2) on the USA side (Fig. 1). The USA and Canadian portions of the LSC watershed differ greatly in terms of land use according to recent satellite-derived land cover data. On the USA side in the year 2006, agricultural land use comprised 41% of the watershed and 32% percent was developed (Fry et al., 2011). In Canada as of 2000, land use in the watershed was dominated by agriculture (77%) with 5% cover each in forest and developed land (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, access date 8 April 2012, ftp://ftp.agr.gc.ca/pub/outgoing/aesb-eos-gg/LCV_CA_AAFC_30M_2000_V12). It is not likely that land cover change in the short

interval between 2000 and 2006 changed these percentages appreciably. The majority of the watershed is located within five counties on each side of the border (Fig. 1). Besides the St. Clair River, the other rivers that drain into the lake aminophylline include the Black, Belle and Clinton Rivers in Michigan and the Thames and Sydenham Rivers in Ontario. The largest portion of water entering the lake (98%) comes from the St. Clair River, which supports the largest freshwater delta in the Great Lakes system (Herdendorf, 1993), the St. Clair Flats which contains about 170 km2 of wetlands (Edsall et al., 1988). We used primary literature, state and federal governmental reports and websites as well as state and federal governmental data sources to compile our overview and to conduct new analyses about the characteristics of the lake and its watershed.

e., where the planning and executing of eye movements is physically impossible. Following the findings of Ball et al. (2013), no effect of eye-abduction on visual working memory performance was expected at any stage. Experiment 1 examined the extent

to which eye-abduction disrupts memory span when applied only during the encoding stage for visual and spatial memoranda. This was accomplished by having participants encode memoranda in an eye-abducted position at the beginning of each trial, then immediately following presentation their trunk and head where rotated such that their eye was placed in a non-abducted frontal position. This was a passive manipulation in which PD-0332991 mouse the experimenter rotated the participant’s chair while they maintained fixation, and did not require any active generation of saccadic eye movements by participants. The procedure followed that previously described by Ball et al. (2013) with

one important addition. Because the encoding manipulation required that participants head and trunk be rotated mid-way in a trial in conjunction with simultaneous counter-rotation of the eye to maintain fixation, this raised the possibility that the rotation in itself could cause disruption independent of any effect of eye-abduction. To control for this possibility we created an additional control condition in which Epigenetics inhibitor participants encoded memoranda with their eyes rotated 20° to the left or right, immediately after which their head and trunk were rotated to a frontal position. Critically, while this condition still required counter-rotation of the eye and head and trunk rotation mid-way through each trial as occurred for 40° abducted trials, participants in the 20° abducted position were still able to physically move their eyes into the temporal hemifield and engage in oculomotor preparation. If the oculomotor system does contribute to the encoding of memoranda in spatial working memory, then disruption of Corsi performance should only be observed during the 40° abduction condition when memoranda

are presented in participants’ temporal hemifield. Fourteen participants took part in this experiment (5 male, mean age 20.8, SD = 3.0, 12 were right eyed). Participants Adenosine were from Durham University and received course credit for taking part. Ethical approval was obtained from the Psychology Research Ethics Committee at Durham University, and participants gave informed consent. All participants had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. In the case of corrected vision, only people who wore contact lenses could be tested. The experiment was run on an IBM compatible personal computer with a 20-inch monitor (1024 by 768 resolution, refresh rate 100 Hz) and was programmed using E-prime (Psychology Software Tools Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, USA).

The ephemeral Saga and Inca channels are characterised by low banks (predominantly <1.5 m high), a meandering planform, and bedload material consisting of unconsolidated sands and gravels, which are typical of the rivers of this region (cf. Taylor and Hudson-Edwards, 2008). The adjacent floodplains are relatively uniform alluvial surfaces with no evidence of significant incision and terrace formation. Finer alluvial sands and silts comprise these surfaces, with occasional small gravels. Although the channel and floodplain contain native vegetation

(eucalypts), it is generally sparse, which learn more is a function of the semi-arid climate as well as cattle grazing. The study area is situated within the Lawn Hill Subprovince of the greater Mount Isa Inlier, with the basement sequence comprising Proterozoic sedimentary, volcanic and intrusive rocks; metamorphosed regionally and folded by the Barramundi

Orogeny (Page and Williams, 1988). Key cover sequences comprise mainly fluvial and shallow marine sedimentary deposits with some volcanics that include the primary ore bearing deposits for many of the Cu and Pb–Ag–Zn mines within the area (Derrick, 1982). SB431542 in vitro The Lady Annie ore body is part of a key unit within these deposits known as the greater McNamara Group (Page and Sweet, 1998), which is characterised by dolomite, siltstones and quartzo-feldspathic sandstone. Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and pyrite (FeS2) occur in the coarse grained carbonate breccia of the primary ore body. The overlying oxidised zone comprises primarily of copper minerals such as cuprite (Cu2O), chalcocite (Cu2S), bornite

(Cu5FeS4) and malachite (Cu2CO3(OH)2) (Cavaney, 1975 and Van Dijk, 1991). The Saga and Inca creek catchment lies across the McNamara Group and the younger Georgina Basin, which is composed of Cambrian limestone, dolomite, conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone and chert of the Georgina Basin as well as Cainozoic surface alluvial and colluvial sediments (Denaro et al., 2001 and Grimes et al., 1998). Agriculture, predominantly cattle grazing, is the most extensive land use within the catchment with 330 pastoral holdings, which includes the Yelvertoft cattle station (Fig. 1) (Lake Eyre Basin Coordinating Group, 2000). Since 2011, the Georgina and Diamantina catchments of the Lake Eyre Dapagliflozin Basin have been protected under the Wild Rivers Act 2005 (Queensland; Queensland Government, 2013). The Lady Annie Project, starting in October 2007, is a Cu heap leaching operation involving open pit mining of the Cu oxide deposits with all processing carried out at a central plant located within the upper reaches of the Saga and Inca creek catchments (Fig. 1; Australia’s Identified Mineral Resources, 2009 and Snowden Mining Industry Consultants, 2010). Residual waste is held in two main storage ponds at the processing plant and includes water, sulphuric acid and fine rock.