To visualize Fos and TH, residual aldehydes were removed with 0.1% sodium borohydride after the first series Venetoclax mouse of Trizma-buffered saline rinses, and endogenous peroxidase activity was quenched with 1% hydrogen peroxide. Tissue was blocked and made permeable with 20% goat serum and 0.3% Triton-X Trizma-buffered saline, followed by incubation in the Fos primary antibody for 48 h at 4°C. Tissue was then incubated consecutively in the Fos secondary antibody and avidin-biotin complex for 1 h each. Lastly, sections

were reacted for approximately 2 min with 10 mg 3,3′-diaminobenzideine tetrahydrochloride in 50 mL Trizma-buffered saline and 45 μL of 30% hydrogen peroxide to produce a dark brown reaction product in the nucleus of Fos-immunoreactive (ir) cells. After rinsing, tissue GSI-IX molecular weight was again blocked and made permeable and then incubated overnight in TH primary antibody. TH secondary antibody and avidin–biotin complex were then each applied consecutively for 1 h. Finally, sections were reacted for approximately 2 min with one drop of Vector SG enzyme substrate in 7 mL Trizma-buffered saline and 50 μL 30% hydrogen peroxide to produce a cytoplasmic

blue reaction product in TH-ir cells. To visualize Fos and orexin, a similar immunohistochemistry protocol was used, but with the appropriate reagents (see Table 1). Primary and secondary antibody deletion control studies were run on separate sections. Non-specific background staining was low or absent in these sections. Tissue sections were mounted onto glass slides and dehydrated with

a series of ethanols before coverslipping. Regions of interest included the nucleus accumbens (Acb), medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) because they are primary components of the mesocorticolimbic dopamine circuitry (Fibiger & Phillips, 1988); the lateral hypothalamus (LH) because of its orexinergic cell population (Aston-Jones et al., 2009); the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) because of its role in gating reproductive and defensive behaviors (Choi et al., 2005); and the posterior medial amygdala (MeP) as a positive control region known to express Fos in response to VS in both juvenile and adult male hamsters (Romeo et al., 1998). Regions were subdivided according to the hamster brain atlas (Morin & Wood, 2001), ADP ribosylation factor as indicated by previous research demonstrating distinct functional and anatomical characteristics of the subregions (Groenewegen et al., 1999; Bradley & Meisel, 2001; Heidbreder & Groenewegen, 2003; Balfour et al., 2006; Ikemoto, 2007). The mPFC included the anterior cingulate (Cg1), prelimbic (PrL) and infralimbic (IL) subregions; the Acb included the core (AcbC) and medial portion of the shell (AcbSh); the MeP included the dorsal (MePD) and ventral (MePV) subregions; the VMH included medial (VMHM) and lateral (VMHL) portions; and the VTA included interfasicular (IF), paranigral (PN), parabrachial pigmented (PBP) and Tail nuclei (Fig. 1).

A collaborative approach is required. AZD4547 In the UK, higher annual treatment and care costs

have been associated with late diagnosis and initiation of ART at lower CD4 cell counts than the BHIVA guidelines recommend [16, 17]. In addition to earlier diagnosis and initiation of ART, reducing inpatient episodes, decreasing drug toxicity, preventing HIV-associated co-morbidities and innovations in models of care are likely to have a beneficial effect on annual costs. However, the cost of antiretroviral (ARV) drugs remains the major factor contributing to treatment and care costs. With the future availability of generic drugs and the introduction of a standard tariff for HIV services (in England), clinicians and patients will be faced with difficult choices about the value and benefit of different ARV drugs. The BHIVA Writing Group recognizes that cost of drugs is an important issue in the choice of ART regimens There

is limited selleck compound cost-effectiveness data in the UK comparing different ARV drugs and for this reason the Writing Group did not include cost-effectiveness as an outcome in ART comparisons. However, the Writing Group believes that decreasing the risk of virological failure, drug resistance and drug-associated toxicity are likely to have a beneficial impact on long-term cost-effectiveness and resource use. In the setting of equivalent virological efficacy, determining the acceptable threshold at which differences in the risk of toxicity, tolerability and convenience outweigh differences in resource use and cost will be

important. These thresholds may differ among clinicians and patients alike. In developing the recommendations in these guidelines, the Writing Group has taken into account differences in critical treatment outcomes between different drug regimens in determining preferred and alternative treatment regimens. The Writing Group recognizes and supports that commissioning arrangements and local drug costs will and should influence ART choice where outcomes, across Neratinib a range of clinical measures, are equivalent between individual drugs in the treatment of defined patient populations. The Writing Group, however, believes that reducing treatment costs should not be at the cost of an increased risk of poorer treatment outcomes and quality of care, not least as these are likely to have a detrimental impact on long-term cost. In reviewing quality of evidence, guidelines will identify areas of treatment and care where there is either an absence of evidence or limited confidence in the size of effect to influence choice of treatments or determine treatment and management strategies. For this reason, it is not the intention of these guidelines to stifle clinical research but help promote continued research with the aim to further improve clinical care and treatment outcomes.

During the last decade about two-thirds of newly diagnosed children were born abroad. Due to the increasing prevalence of maternal infection, combined with increasing maternal diagnosis rates and decreasing MTCT rates, the estimated number of infected children born in the UK remained stable 2001–2006, at about 30–40 a year, although there are indications MAPK Inhibitor Library in vivo that the number may have declined more recently as the total number of births to HIV-infected women has stabilized [6,7]. More than 300 children have also been reported, mostly in the

early years of the epidemic, with non-vertically acquired infection, the majority from blood or blood products [6]. Among HIV-infected children with follow-up Selleck MK2206 care in the

UK and Ireland, the rate of AIDS and mortality combined declined from 13.3 cases per 100 person years before 1997 to 2.5 per 100 person years in 2003–2006 [8]. With improving survival, the median age of children in follow-up increased from 5 years in 1996 to 12 years in 2010, and by 2012 almost 400 young people had transferred to adult care [9]. Pregnancies in vertically infected young women are now occurring [10]. Before the widespread implementation of the routine offer and recommendation of antenatal HIV screening in the UK detection rates prior to delivery were poor. In the mid-1990s only about one-third of infected pregnant women were diagnosed, and most of those were aware of their infection status before they became pregnant [11]. In England, the routine offer and recommendation policy was implemented in 2000, and similar policies were

subsequently adopted elsewhere in the UK. By the end of 2003 virtually all maternity units had implemented the antenatal screening policy, and over two-thirds had achieved > 80% uptake, with about one-third reaching the 90% target [12]. Standards for monitoring antenatal screening were revised and updated in 2010 [13]. National uptake GPX6 of antenatal HIV screening was reported to be 95% in 2008, up from 89% in 2005, and all regions reported at least 90% [13]. Between 2000 and 2004 the majority of HIV-infected women diagnosed before delivery were identified through antenatal screening. However, since 2005 the situation has reversed, and by 2011 over 80% of women diagnosed before delivery were already aware of their infection before they conceived, many of them diagnosed in a previous pregnancy [6]. Nevertheless, some HIV-positive women still remain undiagnosed at delivery, leading to potentially avoidable cases of MTCT. An audit of the circumstances surrounding nearly 90 perinatal transmissions in England in 2002–2005 demonstrated that over two-thirds of these infants were born to women who had not been diagnosed prior to delivery [14]. About half of those undiagnosed women had declined antenatal testing.

In conclusion, nanotechnology is a highly promising technology that can enhance the safety and therapeutic efficacy of antimicrobials against many intracellular infections. It is critical that the physicochemical properties like particle size, composition, charge, and surface area be appropriately controlled to direct them to specific locations in the body. In addition, biocompatibility and

subcellular delivery of nanostructure may ease the clinical translation. “
“The most frequent cause of bacteraemia among Gram-negative bacteria is Escherichia coli. Analysis of the genes encoding the Shigella enterotoxin 1 (ShET-1), ShET-2, enteroaggregative heat stable SCH 900776 research buy toxin 1 (EAST-1) toxins and AggR factor in E. coli strains causing bacteraemia revealed that set1 genes were presented significantly more frequently among quinolone-susceptible strains (P<0.0001), in phylogenetic group B2 (P=0.0004) and in biofilm strains (P=0.02). In contrast, sen genes were significantly more frequent among nalidixic acid-resistant isolates (15% vs. 6%, P=0.046) and in phylogenetic group B1 (P=0.0001). This is the FK506 supplier first study in which ShET1, ShET2 and EAST-1 have been found in E. coli collected from blood. The most frequent cause of bacteraemia among Gram-negative bacteria is Escherichia coli. These isolates possess specialized virulence factors (VFs)

such as adhesins, toxins, iron-acquisition 4-Aminobutyrate aminotransferase systems, polysaccharide coats and invasines that are not present in commensal and intestinal pathogenic strains (Sannes et al., 2004). The Shigella enterotoxin 1 (ShET-1) toxin

has been described in Shigella flexneri 2a. This toxin is encoded by chromosomal set genes, and these genes have been found on the antisense strand of a mucinase gene in S. flexneri, as well as in enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) (Vila et al., 2000; Henderson & Nataro, 2001). The active toxin of ShET-1 has a configuration of one A subunit and several B subunits (A1−Bn) (Noriega et al., 1995; Vargas et al., 1999; Niyogi et al., 2004). The set1 genes are located in the she pathogenicity island (PAI). This PAI is a 46 kb chromosomal element that carries a number of genes with established or potential roles in bacterial virulence (Al-Hasani et al., 2001). In addition to set genes, this PAI includes the sigA gene, which encodes a cytopathic autotransporter protein that contributes to fluid accumulation in ligated rabbit ileal loops (Al-Hasani et al., 2000) and also contains the pic gene (originally she gene), which encodes an autotransporter protein that cleaves mucin and complement and plays a role in inflammation (Henderson & Nataro, 2001). This PAI has been detected in other diarrhoeal pathogens such as Yersinia enterocolitica, Salmonella typhimurium and pathogenic strains of E. coli (Al-Hasani et al., 2001), but has not been sought in E. coli associated with bacteraemia.

Childhood dental anxiety is not only distressing for the child and their family but is also associated with poor oral health outcomes and an increased reliance on costly specialist dental services. Aim.  This article will consider the prevalence, development, and implications of children’s dental anxiety. It will also discuss the opportunities for and challenges of psychological approaches such as cognitive behavioural therapy aimed at the reduction

of dental anxiety in children. “
“International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry 2012; 22: 286–291 Background.  In dentistry, clinical practice is directed towards attitudes that promote oral health and the paediatricians occupy a privileged position in this process. Aim.  To assess the knowledge and attitudes of paediatricians in relation to the oral health of their patients. Design.  A cross-sectional study was carried out at the Institute of Integrative Medicine Professor LDE225 nmr Fernando Figueira, Recife, Brazil. A total of C646 research buy 182 paediatricians participated by filling out a questionnaire. Results.  A total of 63.9% believed the first

visit to the dentist should occur before the child completes 1 year of life. Moreover, 67.8% considered their knowledge on oral health to be insufficient. Approximately 78% of the paediatricians diagnosed caries through an analysis of cavities. Only 29.9% always recommended fluoride dentifrice. The term ‘fluorosis’ was unknown by 48.3% of the respondents. Concerning pacifiers, 32.6% did not allow it and 66.9% did not either recommend it or restrict it. A total of 83.4% classified the oral health content in their medical education as either nonexistent or deficient; this figure remained high (72.4%) in relation to residency. Conclusions.  It is important to develop oral health information programmes to paediatricians. Information on oral health should be included in medical curricula and residency. “
“International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry 2012; 22: 302–309 Background.  Early Childhood Caries is a significant public health issue worldwide. Although much is

known about the aetiology of dental caries, there is limited evidence on the understanding of caregivers on readily available GBA3 early childhood oral health education materials. Aim.  The purpose of this study was to record how parents cope with dental health education materials for preschool children commonly available in New South Wales, Australia. Design.  This qualitative study was nested within a large cohort study in South Western Sydney. English-speaking mothers (n = 24) with young children were approached for a face-to-face, semi-structured interview at their homes. Two dental leaflets designed by NSW Health to give advice on monitoring young children’s oral health were sent to mothers prior to the interview. Interviews were recorded and subsequently transcribed verbatim. Transcripts were analysed by interview debriefing and a thematic coding. Results.

Despite no randomized controlled trials addressing the short- or long-term use of opioids in FMS, their use remains prevalent. In this article we discuss the role of opioids and other analgesics in the management of FMS, with particular focus on problems associated with their use. We review aspects of the pathophysiology of FMS and consider how specific factors may contribute to the lack of efficacy of opioids in this condition. Finally, we discuss drugs with combined opioid and anti-opioid action and their roles in FMS. There is insufficient evidence to recommend the routine

use of opioids in FMS. As well as having a significant adverse effect profile, their inefficacy may be due to their inability to target the pathophysiologic processes involved in this central sensitization selleck chemicals llc syndrome. “
“Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease that is characterized by chronic synovial inflammation. Patients with RA have increased risk of infection; this is related to RA itself or

the adverse effects of medication. In this report, we describe a case of emphysematous pyelonephritis in a patient with RA associated with AA amyloidosis and steroid-induced diabetes mellitus who was taking corticosteroid and low-dose methotrexate. “
“Background:  Receptors Panobinostat for the Fc fragment of immunoglobulin G (Fc γ Rs) represent the link between the humoral and cellular immune responses. Polymorphisms of Fc γ R, mainly IIA, IIB, IIIA, IIIB have been identified as genetic factors influencing susceptibility to disease or disease course of a prototype autoimmune disease like systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Fc γ alleles may be associated with inefficient removal of apoptotic Janus kinase (JAK) cells or antigens and hence may be associated with higher risk of SLE. Objective:  This study was designed to look for Fc γ RIIIB polymorphisms of three different alleles, NA1, NA2 and SH in SLE patients and to correlate the distribution of Fc γ RIIIB genotypes with clinical presentation

and autoantibody profile. Material and methods:  Eighty SLE patients along with eighty normal individuals were studied. Fc γ RIIIB polymorphism was tested by allele-specific primer amplification. Results:  The percentage distribution of NA1/NA1, NA1/NA2 and NA2/NA2 was 22.5%, 40% and 37.5%, respectively, among the normal population; and among SLE patients it was 25%, 40% and 35%, respectively. The percentage distribution of SH allele was 68.8% among the normal population, while in SLE patients it was 60%. No statistical difference was found in the distribution of Fc γ R IIIB genotypes in patients of lupus nephritis and SLE without nephritis (P > 0.05). Conclusion:  Among SLE patients studied, NA2 was the prominent allele. It was commonly associated with clinical manifestations such as skin rash, arthritis, hematological and immunological disorders.

Despite no randomized controlled trials addressing the short- or long-term use of opioids in FMS, their use remains prevalent. In this article we discuss the role of opioids and other analgesics in the management of FMS, with particular focus on problems associated with their use. We review aspects of the pathophysiology of FMS and consider how specific factors may contribute to the lack of efficacy of opioids in this condition. Finally, we discuss drugs with combined opioid and anti-opioid action and their roles in FMS. There is insufficient evidence to recommend the routine

use of opioids in FMS. As well as having a significant adverse effect profile, their inefficacy may be due to their inability to target the pathophysiologic processes involved in this central sensitization Aloxistatin solubility dmso syndrome. “
“Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease that is characterized by chronic synovial inflammation. Patients with RA have increased risk of infection; this is related to RA itself or

the adverse effects of medication. In this report, we describe a case of emphysematous pyelonephritis in a patient with RA associated with AA amyloidosis and steroid-induced diabetes mellitus who was taking corticosteroid and low-dose methotrexate. “
“Background:  Receptors U0126 for the Fc fragment of immunoglobulin G (Fc γ Rs) represent the link between the humoral and cellular immune responses. Polymorphisms of Fc γ R, mainly IIA, IIB, IIIA, IIIB have been identified as genetic factors influencing susceptibility to disease or disease course of a prototype autoimmune disease like systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Fc γ alleles may be associated with inefficient removal of apoptotic Idoxuridine cells or antigens and hence may be associated with higher risk of SLE. Objective:  This study was designed to look for Fc γ RIIIB polymorphisms of three different alleles, NA1, NA2 and SH in SLE patients and to correlate the distribution of Fc γ RIIIB genotypes with clinical presentation

and autoantibody profile. Material and methods:  Eighty SLE patients along with eighty normal individuals were studied. Fc γ RIIIB polymorphism was tested by allele-specific primer amplification. Results:  The percentage distribution of NA1/NA1, NA1/NA2 and NA2/NA2 was 22.5%, 40% and 37.5%, respectively, among the normal population; and among SLE patients it was 25%, 40% and 35%, respectively. The percentage distribution of SH allele was 68.8% among the normal population, while in SLE patients it was 60%. No statistical difference was found in the distribution of Fc γ R IIIB genotypes in patients of lupus nephritis and SLE without nephritis (P > 0.05). Conclusion:  Among SLE patients studied, NA2 was the prominent allele. It was commonly associated with clinical manifestations such as skin rash, arthritis, hematological and immunological disorders.

There may be social or financial pressures on women to breastfeed, and support of formula feeding is important. The NSHPC report on perinatal HIV transmission in the UK [2] noted adverse social factors as a frequent factor in HIV transmission. A recent House of Lords report recommends the provision of free infant formula milk to HIV-positive mothers who have no recourse to public funds [68]. 8.4.2 In very rare instances where a mother who is on effective HAART with a repeatedly undetectable VL chooses to breastfeed, this should not constitute grounds for automatic referral

to child protection teams. Maternal HAART should be carefully monitored and continued until 1 week after all breastfeeding has ceased. Breastfeeding, except during the weaning period, should be exclusive and all breastfeeding, including the weaning period, MK-8669 concentration should have been completed by the end of 6 months. Grading: Abiraterone datasheet 1B Breastfeeding while not on HAART, or with detectable viraemia on HAART does constitute a potential child protection concern. Because the risk of HIV transmission by breastfeeding is entirely avoidable, maternal breastfeeding

against medical advice has previously been considered a child protection concern warranting referral to social services and, where necessary, legal intervention. The efficacy of ART in reducing HIV transmission by breastfeeding in the UK has not been measured. However, while the African data do not warrant a change in the recommendation not to breastfeed in these UK guidelines, they do make it likely that the risk of transmission is low enough that breastfeeding by a woman with HIV and fully suppressed virus on ART should no longer automatically constitute grounds for a child safeguarding referral. It is

considered safer for women to be engaging with medical services while breastfeeding than for them to be breastfeeding without disclosing this. Data from Africa, in women not on HAART, show that mixed feeding carries a higher risk of HIV transmission than exclusive breastfeeding [69]. It is recommended that breastfeeding be stopped as soon as is acceptable to the mother, but in any case (-)-p-Bromotetramisole Oxalate by 6 months. A short period of mixed feeding may be necessary while ending breastfeeding. 8.4.3 Prolonged infant prophylaxis during the breastfeeding period, as opposed to maternal HAART, is not recommended. Grading: 1D Studies in Africa have included both ART given to the mother and ART given as prophylaxis to the infant during breastfeeding. While serious adverse events were not reported in the infants given nevirapine for up to 6 months [61], there are currently insufficient safety data to advocate this approach given the particular safety concerns regarding the use of nevirapine in adults uninfected by HIV. The use of nevirapine for longer than the 2–4 weeks currently recommended for PEP is not advised [70]. 8.4.

When grown in different media, this is mentioned. In all Selleckchem PF 2341066 experiments, the strains were cultured from stocks kept at −80 °C. Double knockout mutants in mutM and mutY were constructed using the Cre-lox system for gene deletion and antibiotic resistance marker recycling. Combined sacB-based negative selection and

cre-lox antibiotic marker recycling for efficient gene deletion in P. aeruginosa were used (Quenee et al., 2005). Upstream and downstream PCR fragments (Primers listed in Table S1) of the wild-type mutM or mutY gene from P. aeruginosa strain PAO1 were digested with HindIII and either BamHI or EcoRI, and cloned by a three way ligation into pEX100Tlink deleted for the HindIII site and opened by EcoRI and BamHI. Eighty-four residues from position 268 were deleted, when the upstream and downstream mutM amplified fragments were joined in pEX100Tlink vector, and 76 residues from position 374 were deleted in mutY, respectively. The resulting plasmids (pEXTMM and pEXTMY) were transformed into E. coli XL1Blue strain, and transformants were PS-341 ic50 selected in 30 mg L−1 ampicillin LB agar plates. The lox flanked gentamicin resistance cassette (aac1) obtained by HindIII restriction of plasmid pUCGmlox was cloned into the HindIII sites in pEXTMM and pEXTMY

formed by the ligation of the upstream and downstream PCR fragments. The resulting plasmids were transformed into E. coli XL1Blue strain, and transformants were selected on 30 mg L−1 ampicillin–5 mg L−1 gentamicin LB agar plates. The resulting plasmids (pEXTMMGm and pEXTMYgm) Suplatast tosilate were then transformed into the E. coli S17-1 helper strain. Single knockout mutants were generated by conjugation, followed by selection of double recombinants using 5% sucrose-1 mg L−1 cefotaxime-30 mg L−1 gentamicin LB agar plates. Double recombinants were checked by screening for ticarcillin (100 mg L−1)

susceptibility and afterwards by PCR amplification and sequencing. For the recycling of the gentamicin resistance cassettes, plasmid pCM157 was electroporated into different mutants. Transformants were selected in 250 mg L−1 tetracycline LB agar plates. One transformant for each mutant was grown overnight in 250 mg L−1 tetracycline LB broth to allow the expression of the cre recombinase. Plasmid pCM157 was then cured from the strains by successive passages on LB broth. Selected colonies were then screened for tetracycline (250 mg L−1) and gentamicin (30 mg L−1) susceptibility and checked by PCR amplification. The single knockout mutants obtained were named PAOMMgm and PAOMYgm. To obtain the double mutant, the conjugation experiments with pEXMMGm using PAOMY as recipients were performed as described above. MutY-mutM double mutant was named PAOMY-Mgm. The maximum growth rate was found to be the same for PAOMY-Mgm and PAO1 in LB (Philipsen et al., 2008).

, 2008). Due to the synergistic effect, combination therapy at the local site with metronidazole and DFO should offer advantage over monotherapy in terms of controlling the subgingival biofilm. Collectively, DFO is effective in reducing pathogenic potential of P. gingivalis and the bacterial growth during early stage, and increasing susceptibility of the bacterium to other antimicrobial agents such as H2O2 and metronidazole. Moreover, DFO enhances PMN function (van Asbeck et al., 1984) and is effective in tissue protection and anti-inflammation (Lauzon et al., 2006; Hanson et al., 2009). Therefore, use of the iron

chelator for controlling bacterial infection and preventing tissue damage seems a fascinating Ibrutinib nmr strategy in the prevention and treatment of periodontal disease. However, toxicity of DFO as a result of long-term and high-dose regimens (Bentur et al., 1991) and the risk of several complications in noniron-overloaded patients systemically receiving iron-chelating agents including DFO (Weinberg, 1990) have been described. This negative attribute of DFO may limit its utility as a AZD8055 research buy systemic agent for periodontal disease, but its clinical usefulness as a local agent for the disease would not be limited. DFO for future use requires careful studies

on both efficacy and toxic effects. It also remains to be studied if DFO has a growth stimulating effect on other possibly pathogenic bacteria of the microbiota of the mouth. We thank Novartis for providing deferoxamine mesylate. This study

was supported by Mid-career Researcher Program through NRF grant funded by the MEST (R01-2007-000-20985-0), Korea. “
“Halophytophthora fluviatilis, a novel species from inland freshwater in Virginia, is characterized and described in this study. This homothallic species produced ovoid to globose sporangia, which release zoospores directly through exit pores. It grew well in a relatively wide range of salinity from 1.8 to 19.0 parts per thousand. Sequence analysis of the rRNA internal transcribed spacer region placed this new species in the Halophytophthora sensu stricto clade. Description Ureohydrolase of this new species expanded the habitat to include geographically distinct inland freshwater ecosystems for the genus Halophytophthora, challenging the notion that this genus is marine or brackish. The need to construct a molecular-based taxonomy for the genus Halophytophthora is also discussed. “
“In the current study, the small RNA ryhB, which regulates the metabolism of iron in Escherichia coli, was constitutively expressed in engineered E. coli DALA. The resulting strain E. coli DALRA produced 16% more 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) than the parent strain E. coli DALA in batch fermentation. Meanwhile, we found that addition of iron in the medium increased heme formation and reduced ALA yield, whereas the presence of iron chelator in the medium decreased heme concentration and increased the ALA production efficiency (ALA yield per OD600).