In a multivariable logistic regression model adjusted for parity, education and age, a desire to have children increased

the likelihood of recalling having received fertility-related information (odds ratio 3.2, 95% CI 1.1-9.2).\n\nConclusionsAlmost half of women with reproductive desire had ovarian surgery without recalling a discussion of fertility issues. Development of written information or interactive information might improve women’s perception of fertility-related information.”
“Promising renewable fuels such as elephant grass in Brazil are under critical examination with reference to greenhouse gases (GHGs) produced during the production phase, especially with regard to the impact check details of nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. The objective of this field study was to examine the impact of N fertilization on biomass yield, plant N accumulation, emissions of N2O and ammonia (NH3) volatilization grown on an buy PD173074 Acrisol typical of large

regions of the Atlantic coast of Brazil over a period of 618 days, covering three growth cycles of elephant grass with three harvests. The tillage required for planting the crop produced emissions of N2O totalling 726 g N2O-N ha(-1), representing approximately 0.6% of the mineralized N as estimated from the soil CO2 emission. Reduction in tillage operations prior to planting would reduce N2O emissions and preserve soil C stocks. There was only a small response of biomass production to additions of urea fertilizer which may be related to the high loss of fertilizer N. Fertilizer induced N2O emissions were 173, 410 and 705 g N2O-N ha(-1) for each growth cycle, respectively, equivalent to a mean emission factor (EF) of 0.51% with a confidence interval of 0.35-0.73%, almost half of the IPCC default EF of 1.0%. Ammonia volatilization losses were high, amounting to a mean of 49% of applied urea N, which is fivefold the IPCC default value (10%) and may indicate that indirect N2O emissions are currently underestimated. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Diplopia GSK2399872A is frequently encountered

in neurological practice and may occur as part of the clinical spectrum of 3rd cranial nerve palsy. Correct localization of the underlying problem is the first step in making an accurate diagnosis. Pathologies affecting the supranuclear structures, cranial nerves and nuclei, extraocular muscles and the neuromuscular junction may cause or simulate 3rd nerve palsy. We report a case of a patient with longstanding quiescent SLE who presented with sudden onset of diplopia and discuss possible aetiologies including ischemia, demyelination, neuromuscular conditions and medication-induced. Lupus (2009) 18, 836-840.”
“P>Objective\n\nTo investigate the relationship between avascular osteonecrosis (AVN) and corticosteroid treatment given to patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).

This has implications for workforce planning click here and the future provision of cancer services.\n\nMethod: In an attempt to establish a baseline of the workforce a census

was taken. Data was collected via an Excel spreadsheet by Cancer Network Nurse Directors and Lead Nurses across England and Northern Ireland and a lead nurse in Wales. Scotland, Palliative Care and Chemotherapy posts were excluded at levels other than Consultant as these are collected via other mechanisms.\n\nResults & conclusions: The census recorded 2309.4 specialist and advanced practice posts in England (89% response rate), 204 posts in Wales (66% response rate) and 43.4 posts in Northern Ireland (100% response rate).\n\nThere is a variation FK228 inhibitor in terms of distribution of specialist nurses across the Networks both in number and in cancer type.1800 adult CNS posts were recorded in England and 1 in 5 of these were breast cancer posts. The range of job titles is very wide with 17 different titles being used. In England the extent of support for posts from Macmillan Cancer Support was considerable. Around a third (31%) of all adult cancer specialist posts in England are supported by Macmillan Cancer Support (n = 671.2) 607.2 of these are CNS posts equating to 34% of all CNS posts in

England. 34% of all NI CNS posts and 32.5% in Wales. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Pesticide coated seeds are commonly used in agriculture, and may be an important source of food for some birds in times of scarcity,

as well as a route of pesticide ingestion. We tested the lethal and sub-lethal effects of treated seed ingestion by the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa), a game bird of high socio-economic value in Spain. One year-old partridges (n = 42 pairs) were fed for 10 days in spring (prior to breeding) with wheat treated with difenoconazole (fungicide), thiram (fungicide) or imidacloprid (insecticide), using two doses for each pesticide (the one recommended, and JAK inhibitor its double to represent potential cases of abuse of pesticides). We investigated the direct and indirect effects on the body condition, physiology, immunology, coloration and subsequent reproduction of exposed partridges. For the latter, eggs were collected, measured and incubated and the growth and survival of chicks were monitored. Thiram and imidacloprid at high exposure doses produced mortalities of 41.6 and 58.3 %, respectively. The first death was observed at day 3 for imidacloprid and at day 7 for thiram. Both doses of the three pesticides caused sublethal effects, such as altered biochemical parameters, oxidative stress and reduced carotenoid-based coloration. The high exposure doses of imidacloprid and thiram also produced a decrease in cellular immune response measured by the phytohemagglutinin test in males.

All rights reserved.)”
“Background: It has been suggested that sleep apnea syndrome may play a role in normal-tension glaucoma contributing to optic nerve damage. The purpose of this study was to evaluate if optic nerve and visual field parameters in individuals with sleep apnea syndrome differ from those in controls. Patients and Methods: From the records of the sleep laboratory at the University Hospital in Bern, Switzerland, we recruited consecutive patients with severe sleep apnea syndrome proven by polysomnography, apnea-hypopnea index bigger than 20, as well

as no sleep apnea controls with apnea- hypopnea index smaller than 10. Participants had to be unknown to the ophtalmology department and had to have no recent eye examination in the medical history. All participants underwent a comprehensive eye examination, scanning laser polarimetry (GDx VCC, Carl Zeiss Meditec, Dublin, buy BI 10773 California), scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (Heidelberg Retina Tomograph II, HRT II), and automated perimetry

(Octopus 101 Programm G2, Haag-Streit Diagnostics, Koeniz, Switzerland). Mean values of the parameters of the two groups were compared by t-test. Results: The sleep apnea group consisted of 69 eyes of 35 patients; age 52.7 +/- 9.7 years, apnea-hypopnea index 46.1 +/- 24.8. As controls served 38 eyes of 19 patients; age 45.8 +/- 11.2 years, apnea- hypopnea index 4.8 +/- 1.9. A difference was found in Epigenetics Compound Library in vitro mean intraocular pressure, although in a fully overlapping range, sleep apnea group: 15.2 +/- 3.1, range 8-22 mmHg, controls: 13.6 +/- 2.3, range 9-18 mmHg; p smaller than 0.01. None of the extended visual field, optic nerve head (HRT) CX-6258 datasheet and retinal nerve fiber layer (GDx VCC) parameters showed a significant difference between the groups. Conclusion: Visual field, optic nerve head, and retinal nerve fiber layer parameters in patients with sleep apnea did not differ from those in the control group. Our results do not support a pathogenic relationship between sleep apnea syndrome and glaucoma.”
“The Laasraoui-Jonas (LJ), Kocks-Mecking

(KM), and power law (PW) stress-strain equations pertaining to hot working of metals within the range of moderate strains (i.e., before the occurrence of dynamic recrystallization) are compared. It is shown that it is not possible to select the “best” one to fit a given experimental flow curve, neither in the sigma – epsilon nor in the diagram. Noting that each of the three laws depends on two constitutive parameters, transformation formulae are then derived allowing the parameters of one law to be derived from the parameters of any of the two others. The fit of a given LJ equation by a PW law is then discussed. Finally, the transformation formulae are used to estimate the current rate of dynamic recovery when the flow rule is known in the form a PW law. The above theoretical derivations are illustrated by the specific case of a Fe-C alloy in the ferritic phase domain.

Thus, interactions between drug effects and motivational state are crucial in defining the effects of MPH and ATX. Neuropsychopharmacology (2011) 36, 1237-1247; doi: 10.1038/npp.2011.9; published online 23 February 2011″
“To evaluate the impact of noninvasive ventilation (NIV) algorithms available on intensive care unit ventilators on the incidence of patient-ventilator asynchrony in patients receiving NIV for acute respiratory

failure.\n\nProspective multicenter randomized cross-over study.\n\nIntensive care units in three university hospitals.\n\nPatients consecutively admitted to the ICU and treated by NIV with an ICU ventilator were included. Airway pressure, flow and surface diaphragmatic BIIB057 order electromyography were recorded continuously during two 30-min periods, with the NIV (NIV+) or without the NIV algorithm (NIV0). Asynchrony events, the asynchrony index (AI) and a specific asynchrony index influenced by leaks (AIleaks) were determined from tracing analysis.\n\nSixty-five patients were included. With and without the NIV algorithm, respectively, auto-triggering was present in 14 (22%) and 10 (15%) patients, ineffective breaths in 15 (23%) and 5 (8%) (p = 0.004), late cycling in 11 (17%) and 5 (8%) (p = 0.003), premature cycling in 22 (34%) and 21 (32%), and double triggering in 3 (5%) and 6 (9%). The mean number of asynchronies influenced by leaks

LY294002 was significantly reduced by the NIV algorithm (p < 0.05). A significant correlation was found between the magnitude of leaks and AIleaks when the NIV algorithm was not activated (p = 0.03). The global AI remained unchanged, mainly because on some ventilators with the NIV algorithm premature cycling occurs.\n\nIn acute respiratory failure, NIV algorithms provided by ICU ventilators can https://www.selleckchem.com/products/wzb117.html reduce the incidence of asynchronies because of leaks, thus confirming bench test results, but some of these algorithms can generate premature cycling.”
“We have surveyed the effects of different acid catalysts, reaction times, and temperatures on the yield, regioselectivity, and stereoselectivity and calculated the ketoxime isomerization and activation

energy of the title compound. A facile synthetic procedure with good yields and good regio- and stereoselectivity for Beckmann rearrangement of oxime sulfonate with ZnCl2 in the presence of solvent is developed.”
“Background: An interval of 3-4 weeks between intramuscular injections of 1.2 million units of benzathine penicillin G as prophylaxis against group A streptococcal infection is recommended by health organizations for patients with pediatric rheumatic fever and heart disease.\n\nMethods: We reviewed the literature for evidence of the persistence of serum penicillin G during the first 4 weeks after the recommended dose of benzathine penicillin G.\n\nResults: The weighted-mean concentration was <0.02 mu g/mL by 3 weeks after the initial dose.

“
“IMPORTANCE In an effort to improve the quality of care, several obstetric-specific quality measures are now monitored and publicly reported. The extent to which these measures are associated with maternal and neonatal morbidity is not known. OBJECTIVE To examine whether 2 Joint Commission obstetric quality indicators are associated with maternal and neonatal morbidity. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS Population-based observational study using linked New York City

discharge and birth certificate data sets from 2010. All delivery hospitalizations were identified and 2 perinatal quality measures were calculated (elective, nonmedically indicated deliveries at 37 or more weeks of gestation and before 39 weeks of gestation; cesarean delivery performed in low-risk mothers). Published algorithms were used to identify selleck inhibitor severe maternal morbidity (delivery associated with a life-threatening complication or performance of a lifesaving procedure) and morbidity in term newborns without anomalies (births associated with complications such as birth trauma, hypoxia, and prolonged length of stay). Mixed-effects logistic regression models were used to examine the association between maternal morbidity, neonatal morbidity, and hospital-level quality measures while risk-adjusting for patient sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Individual-and hospital-level maternal and neonatal morbidity.

RESULTS Severe maternal morbidity occurred among 2372 of 115 742 deliveries (2.4%), and neonatal morbidity occurred among 8057 of 103 416 term newborns without anomalies (7.8%). Rates ALK inhibitor for

elective deliveries performed before 39 weeks of gestation ranged from 15.5 to 41.9 per 100 deliveries among 41 hospitals. There were 11.7 to 39.3 cesarean deliveries per 100 deliveries performed in low-risk mothers. Maternal morbidity ranged from 0.9 to 5.7 mothers with complications per 100 deliveries and neonatal morbidity from 3.1 to 21.3 neonates with complications per Natural Product Library 100 births. The maternal quality indicators elective delivery before 39 weeks of gestation and cesarean delivery performed in low-risk mothers were not associated with severe maternal complications (risk ratio [RR], 1.00 [95% CI, 0.98-1.02] and RR, 0.99 [95% CI, 0.96-1.01], respectively) or neonatal morbidity (RR, 0.99 [95% CI, 0.97-1.01] and RR, 1.01 [95% CI, 0.99-1.03], respectively). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Rates for the quality indicators elective delivery before 39 weeks of gestation and cesarean delivery performed in low-risk mothers varied widely in New York City hospitals, as did rates of maternal and neonatal complications. However, there were no correlations between the quality indicator rates and maternal and neonatal morbidity. Current quality indicators may not be sufficiently comprehensive for guiding quality improvement in obstetric care. Copyright 2014 American Medical Association. All rights reserved.

By coupling

the techniques of stable S-34-sulfate isotope labeling, aniline-and D-5-aniline tagging, and stable isotope facilitated Rabusertib clinical trial uronic acid-reduction with LC-MS analysis, our data revealed for the first time the existence of covalently linked sulfate and the presence of polygalacuronic acids in the polysaccharides purified from the salt added C. Militaris culture. Our data showed that culturing C. Militaris with added salts changed the biosynthetic scheme and resulted in novel polysaccharide structures and functions. These findings might be insightful in terms of how to make C. Militaris cultures to reach or to exceed the potency of wild Cordyceps in future.”
“OBJECTIVE-Arachidonic acid is metabolized by 12-lipoxygenase (12-LOX) to 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE) and has an important click here role in the regulation of angiogenesis and endothelial cell proliferation and migration. The goal of this study was to investigate whether 12-LOX plays a role in retinal neovascularization (NV).\n\nRESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS-Experiments were performed using retinas from a murine

model of oxygen-induced ischemic retinopathy (OIR) that was treated with and without the LOX pathway inhibitor, baicalein, or lacking 12-LOX. We also analyzed vitreous samples from patients with and without proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR). Western blotting and RT-PCR were used to assess the expression of 12-LOX, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF). Liquid chromatography-mass selleck kinase inhibitor spectrometry was used to assess the amounts of HETEs in the murine retina and human vitreous samples. The effects of 12-HETE on VEGF and PEDF expression were evaluated in Muller cells (rMCs), primary mouse retinal pigment epithelial cells, and astrocytes.\n\nRESULTS-Retinal NV during OIR was associated with increased 12-LOX expression and 12-, 15-, and 5-HETE production. The amounts of HETEs also were significantly higher in the vitreous of diabetic patients with PDR. Retinal NV was markedly abrogated in mice

treated with baicalein or mice lacking 12-LOX. This was associated with decreased VEGF expression and restoration of PEDF levels. PEDF expression was reduced in 12-HETE-treated rMCs, astrocytes, and the retinal pigment epithelium. Only rMCs and astrocytes showed increased VEGF expression by 12-HETE.\n\nCONCLUSIONS-12-LOX and its product HETE are important regulators of retinal NV through modulation of VEGF and PEDF expression and could provide a new therapeutic target to prevent and treat ischemic retinopathy. Diabetes 60:614-624, 2011″
“Circadian rhythms in the sleep/wake cycle, along with a range of physiological measures, are severely disrupted in individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD).

Pseudonaja textilis (brown snake), Notechis scutatus (tiger snake), Oxyuranus scutellatus (taipan), Tropidechis carinatus (rough-scaled snake), Pseudechis poiphyriacus (red-bellied black snake) and D. russelii mixtures with appropriate antivenoms were assayed. Measured VAV

initially increased with increasing antivenom concentration until it reached a maximum after which the VAV concentration decreased with further increasing antivenom concentrations. The VAV curves for two Australian snake venom-antivenom mixtures, Hoplocephalus stephensii and Ancanthophis antarcticus, had broad VAV peaks with two maxima. Two fractions isolated from N. scutatus venom and Russell’s viper factor X activator toxin produced similar VAV curves to their whole venoms. The antivenom concentration for which the maximum VAV occurred was linearly related to the venom concentration, and this slope Prexasertib datasheet DZNeP or ratio was consistent with that used to define the neutralisation units for Australian antivenoms. The maximal VAV point appears to represent the antivenom concentration where every venom molecule (toxin) is attached to at least one antivenom molecule (antibody) on average and may be a useful measure of antivenom efficacy. In vivo this would mean that for

a defined antivenom concentration, venom components will be eliminated and are trapped in the central compartment. Crown Copyright (C) 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“We studied the impact of HIV Nef on CD8(+) T cells in a mouse model of AIDS, the SBE-β-CD CD4C/HIVNef transgenic (Tg) mice. We found that

negative and positive thymic selections of CD8(+) T cells proceeded normally in Nef Tg mice bred respectively with HY or OT-1 TCR Tg mice. Tg peripheral CD8(+) T cells showed an activated phenotype and enhanced cell division in vivo and proliferated efficiently when stimulated in vitro with antigenic peptide. When challenged with LCMVArmstrong, Nef Tg mice developed a strong acute CD8(+) T cell response and cleared the virus as efficiently as wild-type mice. However, maintenance of LCMV-specific CD8(+) memory T cells was impaired in Nef Tg mice, a defect partially rescued by adoptive transfer of non-Tg naive CD4(+) T cells. Thus, despite severe abnormalities of their precursors, the double-positive CD4(+)CD8(+) thymocytes, Tg CD8(+) T cells have conserved important functions. (C) 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“Aldosterone plays an important role in the pathophysiology of heart failure. Aldosterone receptor blockade has been shown to reduce morbidity and mortality in human patients with advanced congestive left ventricular heart failure. This study was designed to assess the efficacy and tolerance of long-term low-dose spironolactone when added to conventional heart failure treatment in dogs with advanced heart failure.

Several of the polymer degradation genes are located in close association with genes for TonB-dependent receptors and transducers, suggesting an integrated regulation of adhesion and degradation of polymers. This confirmed the role of this abundant group of marine bacteria as degraders of particulate matter. Marine Bacteroidetes had a significantly

larger number of proteases than GHs, while non-marine Bacteroidetes had equal numbers of both. Proteorhodopsin containing Bacteroidetes shared two characteristics: small genome size and a higher number of genes involved in CO2 fixation per Mb. The latter may be important in order to survive when floating freely in the illuminated, but nutrient-poor, ocean surface. The ISME Journal (2013) 7, 1026-1037; doi:10.1038/ismej.2012.169; PI3K inhibitor Mizoribine mouse published

online 10 January 2013″
“After more than two decades of AIDS epidemic, the spectrum of HIV-associated vascular diseases has mainly evolved from infectious and inflammatory vasculitides to premature atherosclerosis, its related contributing conditions (metabolic syndrome, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance syndrome) and complications (acute coronary and cerebrovascular syndromes). Today, as the AIDS epidemic further progress worldwide and as the life expectancy of HIV-infected patients treated with effective antiviral regimens has dramatically increased, more than 10% of patients experience cardiovascular manifestations. The complex interplay between viral infection, inflammatory and cytokines pathways, protease inhibitors-induced hyperlipidemia and direct effects on endothelial cells has not, by far, been integrated in a single comprehensive pathogenesis AZD6244 order network. However, recognition of its main components has resulted in a broader appreciation of cardiovascular risk and risk factors in HIV-infected/treated patients.\n\nCardiovascular prevention is required in more than one half of HIV-infected/treated patients to achieve a reliable effectiveness

of modern antiretroviral therapy. As the prognosis of HIV patients improves continuously, this rate is also likely to increase in the future. (c) 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Hydraulic conductance of leaves (Kleaf) typically decreases with increasing water stress and recent studies have proposed different mechanisms responsible for decreasing Kleaf. We measured Kleaf concurrently with ultrasonic acoustic emissions (UAEs) in dehydrating leaves of several species to determine whether declining Kleaf was associated with xylem embolism. In addition, we performed experiments in which the surface tension of water in the leaf xylem was reduced by using a surfactant solution.

(J Am Coll Cardiol Intv 2009;2:655-62) (C) 2009 by the American College of Cardiology Foundation”
“Trichomonas vaginalis commonly causes vaginitis and perhaps cervicitis in women and urethritis in men and women. Macrophages are important immune cells in response to T. vaginalis infection. In this study, we investigated whether human macrophages could be involved in inflammation induced by T. vaginalis. Human monocyte-derived macrophages

( HMDM) were co-cultured with T. vaginalis. Live, opsonized-live trichomonads, and T. vaginalis lysates increased proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-alpha, IL-1 beta, and IL-6 by HMDM. The involvement of nuclear factor (NF)-kappa B signaling pathway in cytokine production induced by T. vaginalis Selleckchem Oligomycin A was confirmed by phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of p65 NF-kappa B. In addition, stimulation with live T. vaginalis induced marked augmentation of nitric oxide ( NO) production and expression of inducible NO synthase ( iNOS) levels in HMDM. However, trichomonad-induced

NF-kappa B activation and TNF-alpha production in macrophages were significantly inhibited by inhibition of iNOS levels with L-NMMA ( NO synthase inhibitor). Moreover, pretreatment with NF-kappa B inhibitors ( PDTC or Bay11-7082) caused human macrophages to produce less TNF-alpha. These results suggest that T. vaginalis stimulates human macrophages to produce proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-alpha, and BEZ235 molecular weight NO. In particular, we showed that T. vaginalis induced TNF-alpha production in macrophages through NO-dependent activation of NF-kappa B, which might be closely involved in inflammation caused by T. vaginalis.”
“In immune responses, activated

T cells migrate to B-cell follicles and develop into follicular T-helper (T-FH) cells, a recently identified subset of buy LY2835219 CD4(+) T cells specialized in providing help to B lymphocytes in the induction of germinal centres(1,2). Although Bcl6 has been shown to be essential in T-FH-cell function, it may not regulate the initial migration of T cells(3) or the induction of the T-FH program, as exemplified by C-X-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CXCR5) upregulation(4). Here we show that expression of achaete-scute homologue 2 (Ascl2)-a basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor(5)-is ;selectively upregulated in T-FH cells. Ectopic expression of Ascl2 upregulates CXCR5 but not Bcl6, and downregulates C-C chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) expression in T cells in vitro, as well as accelerating T-cell migration to the follicles and T-FH-cell development in vivo in mice. Genome-wide analysis indicates that Ascl2 directly regulates T-FH-related genes whereas it inhibits expression of T-helper cell 1 (T(H)1) and T(H)17 signature genes.

Previous studies showed that MCAs express KCNQ1, 4, and 5 potassium channel genes, and the expression products (Kv7 channels) participate in the myogenic control of MCA diameter. The present study investigated the contribution of Kv7.4 and Kv7.5 isoforms to myogenic and CGRP regulation of MCA diameter and determined whether they were affected in hypertensive animals. Approach and Results Isometric tension recordings performed on MCA from normotensive rats produced CGRP vasodilations that were inhibited by the pan-Kv7 channel blocker linopirdine

(P Selleckchem Sotrastaurin smaller than 0.01) and after transfection of arteries with siRNA against KCNQ4 (P smaller than 0.01) but not KCNQ5. However, isobaric myography revealed that myogenic constriction in response to increases in intravascular pressure AICAR (20-80 mmHg) was affected by both KCNQ4 and KCNQ5 siRNA. Proximity ligation assay signals were equally abundant for Kv7.4/Kv7.4 or Kv7.4/Kv7.5 antibody combinations

but minimal for Kv7.5/Kv7.5 antibodies or Kv7.4/7.1 combinations. In contrast to systemic arteries, Kv7 function and Kv7.4 abundance in MCA were not altered in hypertensive rats. Conclusions This study reveals, for the first time to our knowledge, that in cerebral arteries, Kv7.4 and Kv7.5 proteins exist predominantly YM155 cost as a functional heterotetramer, which regulates intrinsic myogenicity and vasodilation attributed to CGRP. Surprisingly, unlike systemic arteries, Kv7 activity in MCAs is not affected by the development of hypertension, and CGRP-mediated vasodilation is well maintained. As such, cerebrovascular Kv7 channels could be amenable for therapeutic targeting in conditions such as cerebral vasospasm.”
“Objectives To investigate trends in official development assistance for health, HIV and non-HIV activities over time and to discuss the efficiency implications of these trends in the context of achieving universal access to treatment and health systems.\n\nMethods Official development

assistance for health, HIV programmes and non-HIV programmes were tracked using data from 2000 to 2009. A review of the literature on efficiency, treatment and health systems was conducted.\n\nFindings The rate of growth of donor funding to HIV programmes has slowed in recent years at levels below those required to sustain programmes and to move towards universal access to treatment. These trends are likely due to increased pressure on foreign aid budgets and donor fatigue for HIV programmes.\n\nConclusions There is great need to consider how the limited resources available can be used most efficiently to increase the number of lives saved and to ensure that these resources also benefit health systems.